Foreign relations of Syria

Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbours and securing the return of the Golan Heights, have been the primary goals of the Syrian Arab Republic's foreign policy. At many points in its history, Syria has seen tension with its neighbours, such as Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil War.

Politics of Syria

Arab League Member State of the Arab League

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Nations with which Syria has diplomatic relations.

Until 2018, due to the Syrian civil war, the Syrian Arab Republic's government was partially isolated from the countries in the region and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations are severed with several countries including: Turkey, Canada, France, Italy, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany, United States, UK, Belgium, Spain, Mexico, Qatar, Georgia and Ukraine.[1] In 2011 and 2012, Syria was suspended from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and Union for the Mediterranean. Syria is also a full member of the Arab League. Syria is a candidate state of the new Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU).[2][3]

Syria continues to foster good relations with its traditional allies, Iran and Russia. Other countries that presently maintain good relations with Syria include China, Japan, North Korea, Vietnam,[4][5] Fiji, Singapore, Sri Lanka,[6] Laos,[7] Myanmar,[8] Cambodia,[9] Thailand,[10] Philippines,[11] India,[12][13][14] Pakistan,[15] Bangladesh,[16] Malaysia,[17] Indonesia[18] Brunei,[19] Armenia,[20] Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,[21] Kyrgyzstan,[22] Uzbekistan,[10] Turkmenistan,[10] Mongolia,[23] Tajikistan,[24] Greece, Cyprus, North Macedonia,[25] Czech Republic, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary,[26] Serbia, Montenegro,[27] Vatican City and Belarus.[28]

Syria does not maintain diplomatic relations with Israel and South Korea, but has diplomatic relations with Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[29] Syria also maintains relations with autonomous Iraqi Kurdistan.[30]

On 26 February 2023, Bashar al-Assad had met with Iraqi, Jordanian, Palestinian, Libyan, Egyptian and Emirati lawmakers, as well as representatives from Oman and Lebanon after more than a decade of isolation in the region. Arab states contributed significantly to the relief effort after the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake. A week before, Al-Assad travelled to Oman for his first foreign visit since the quake.[31]

Bilateral relations

Africa

Syria has relations with Angola,[32] Cameroon,[33] Eritrea,[34] Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali,[35] Mozambique,[36] Niger, Nigeria,[37][38] Senegal,[39] Somalia,[40] South Africa,[41][42] Uganda,[43] Tanzania[44] and Zimbabwe.[45]

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Algeria27 August 1962See Algeria–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1962.[46]
  • Syria has an embassy in Algiers.
  • Algeria has an embassy in Damascus.[47]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Angola 10 February 1999 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 February 1999[48]
 Chad 16 August 1969 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 August 1969[49]
 Comoros 25 November 1975 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1975[50]
 Republic of Congo 10 February 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 February 1977[51]
 EgyptSee Egypt–Syria relations
  • Syria has an embassy in Cairo.
  • Egypt has an embassy in Damascus.[52]
  • In June 2013 Egypt's president Mohammed Morsi announced he would cut all relations with the Syrian government.[53] Under Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, however, Egypt has taken a more supportive stance towards Assad's government. In 2017, for example, Egypt called for Syria's re-admittance to the Arab League.[54]
  • On 19 May 2023, on the sidelines of the 2023 Arab League Summit, the presidents of both countries met and held a conversation about bilateral relations. It was the first meeting between the heads of the two states since 2011.[55]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Eritrea22 April 1994

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 April 1994.[56]

 Ethiopia 26 August 1980 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 August 1980[57]
 Gabon 18 July 1975 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 July 1975[58]
 Libya
 Mauritania11 June 1966
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 June 1966.[66]
  • Syria has an embassy in Nouakchott.[67]
  • Mauritania has an embassy in Damascus.[68]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Morocco2 June 1956See Morocco–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 June 1956.[69]
  • Syria is accredited to Morocco from its embassy in Algiers.[70]
  • Morocco has an embassy in Damascus.[71]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Nigeria30 September 1965
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 September 1965.[72]
  • Syria has an embassy in Abuja and honorary consulate in Lagos.[73]
  • Nigeria has an embassy in Damascus.[38]
 SADR15 April 1980 (recognition)See Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic–Syria relations
  • Syria officially recognized SADR on 15 April 1980, but does not maintain diplomatic relations with it.[74]
  • SADR has General Delegation in Damascus.
 Senegal
  • Syria has an embassy in Dakar.[75][76]
  • Senegal is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Cairo.
 Somalia 13 December 1964
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 December 1964.[77]
  • President Hafez al-Assad and President Siad Barre had a positive relationship despite Somalia's very strong economic and military ties to Syria's then-geopolitical rival, Iraq. Syria also provided limited intelligence and logistics support to Somalia during the Ogaden War despite the Soviet-Syrian special relationship.[78]
  • Syria has a non-resident embassy in Sanaa.[79]
  • Syria formerly had an embassy in Mogadishu but vacated it in 1991 due to the outbreak of the Somali Civil War.
  • Somalia has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 South Africa1 June 1994
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 1994.[80]
  • Syria has an embassy in Pretoria.[81]
  • South Africa has an embassy in Damascus.[82]
 Sudan28 January 1957See Sudan–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 January 1957, when Ambassador of Syria to Sudan (resident in Cairo) Mr. Abdel Rahman El Azm was accredited.[83]
  • Syria has an embassy in Khartoum.[84]
  • Sudan has an embassy in Damascus.[85]
  • On 16 December 2018, Sudanese President, Omar al-Bashir, became the first Arab League member to visit Syria since the eruption of Syrian Civil War in 2011.[86]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Tanzania
 Tunisia2 June 1956See Syria–Tunisia relations
  • Both countries establishged diplomatic relations on 2 June 1956.[88]
  • Syria has an embassy in Tunis.[89]
  • Tunisia has an embassy in Damascus.[90]
  • Tunisia ceased to recognise the government of Syria on 4 February 2012. During his tenure, Hamadi Jebali, the Prime Minister, called on fellow Arab states to follow its lead: "We have to expel the Syrian ambassadors from Arab countries."[91]
  • In 2019, France24 speculated that new president Kais Saied could renew his country's diplomatic relations with Syria.[92]
  • Following the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, President Saied decided to strengthen diplomatic ties with Syria to the ambassador level.[93]
  • In April 2023, Syria officially re-established diplomatic relations with Tunisia.[94]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Uganda 28 June 1972 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 June 1972[95]
 Zambia 15 May 1969 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 May 1969[96]

Americas

Syria has diplomatic relations with most Central and South American countries such as Antigua and Barbuda,[97] Argentina,[98] Bolivia,[99] Brazil,[100] Chile,[101] Cuba,[102][103] Ecuador,[104] El Salvador,[105] Grenada,[106] Guatemala,[107] Guyana,[108] Nicaragua,[109] Panama,[110] Paraguay,[111] Peru,[112] Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia,[113] Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis, Suriname,[97] Uruguay[114] and Venezuela.[115]

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Antigua and Barbuda 18 April 1983
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 April 1983.[116]
 Argentina23 November 1945
 Belize 28 August 2001
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 August 2001.[120]
  • Syria is accredited to Belize from its embassy in Havana.
 Bolivia 14 January 2010
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 January 2010.[121]
  • Syria is accredited to Bolivia from its embassy in Santiago.
 Brazil13 November 1945
 Canada20 May 1965
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 1965.[127]
  • The Canadian Embassy closed on March 5, 2012.[128]
  • The Syrian Embassy in Ottawa was closed on 29 May 2012.[129]
  • Syrian consulate in Montreal was closed in 2016.[130]
  • Syria has an honorary consulate in Vancouver.
  • Since the beginning of the Syrian War, over 40,000 Syrian refugees have re-settled in Canada.[131]
 Chile22 October 1945
 Colombia 24 May 1988
 Costa Rica 15 December 1964
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 1964.[137]
 Cuba11 August 1965[138]See Cuba–Syria relations
 Dominican Republic2 October 2007
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 October 2007.[140]
  • Syria is accredited to Dominican Republic from its embassy in Caracas.
 Ecuador
  • Relations were strong under President Rafael Correa. Relations deteriorated after Correa was ousted.
 Grenada23 January 1980
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 1980.[141]
 Guyana 19 June 1973
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 June 1973.[142]
 Mexico20 August 1950See Mexico–Syria relations
  • Mexico and Syria established diplomatic relations on 21 August 1950.[143]
  • Syria does not have an embassy accredited to Mexico.
  • Mexico is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Cairo.[144]
  • In 2014, Mexico closed its honorary consulate in Damascus.[145]
 Nicaragua
  • Syria is accredited to Nicaragua from its embassy in Havana.
  • Nicaragua is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Tehran.
 Paraguay13 December 2004
 Peru16 August 1975
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 August 1975.[151]
  • Syria is accredited to Peru from its embassy in Santiago.
 Suriname 18 October 1976
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 October 1976.[152]
 Trinidad and Tobago11 January 1972
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 January 1972 when was accredited first Ambassador of Syrian Arab Republic (resident in Caracas) Mr. Bachir El Kotb.[153]
  • Syria has an honorary consulate in Arima.[154]
 United States17 November 1944See Syria–United States relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 November 1944.[155]

While relations between the two states have long since been tense, the two have maintained diplomatic exchanges. However, relations took an ominous turn in October 2008 with a cross-border raid during the Iraq War to ostensibly fend off the rise of allegedly foreign militants into the Iraq fighting for the Iraqi resistance.

In December 2012, US president Barack Obama announced the US would formally recognise the Syrian Opposition Coalition, rather than the Damascus government, as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people. As of 2012, the embassy of the United States is suspended due to the Syrian civil war.[156] In May 2014, the US announced it recognised the opposition Syrian National Coalition's US offices as an official "foreign mission".[157]

As of 21 August 2013, the United States has threatened to strike key Syrian chemical and biological weapons installations in response to a chemical attack that was allegedly carried out by forces loyal to Assad on a rebel stronghold within the capital Damascus. Assad had denied any involvement, however President Obama claims to have intelligence proving otherwise. No proof has been given to the public other than reports from key United States senators and representatives. As of 4 September 2013, the Committee on Foreign Relations approved an attack with a 10–7 vote.

President Trump on April 6, 2017, ordered the first U.S. airstrike on the Syrian air force since the country's civil war began in 2011. US Navy warships USS Porter and USS Ross in the Mediterranean Sea launched dozens of Tomahawk missiles at Syria's Shayrat air base. The strikes were in reaction to what Washington says was a sarin poison gas attack by the government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad that killed at least 70 people in the Idlib region of Syria. U.S. officials informed Russian forces ahead of the missile strikes, which Russian military were in Syria actively supporting and assisting al-Assad during Syria's civil war, and US air strikes avoided hitting Russian personnel. Trump, who authorized the launch of 59 Tomahawk missiles from Navy warships in the Mediterranean Sea on an air base near Homs were in direct response to Bashar al-Assad's alleged use of chemical weapons in the town of Idlib on April 4, 2017. Following airstrikes were conducted on April 8, 2017, on the Syrian city that was the site of chemical weapons attack earlier.

On October 7, 2019, the President of the United States ordered the withdrawal of US military troops stationed on the Syrian-Turkey border. This withdrawal of military support was ordered by the President with disapproval of the Pentagon and the US Intelligence community. The US president ordered the withdrawal of military troops under the premise that Turkey would not invade the region being held by Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF); however Turkey attacked the SDF within 24 hours of US military withdrawal from the region.[158]

 Uruguay 11 October 1946
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 October 1946.[159]
  • Syria is accredited to Uruguay from its embassy in Buenos Aires.[160]
 Venezuela14 June 1946See Syria–Venezuela relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 June 1946.[161]

Asia

Syria's relations with the Arab world were strained by its support for Iran during the Iran–Iraq War, which began in 1980. With the end of the war in August 1988, Syria began a slow process of reintegration with the other Arab states. In 1989, it joined with the rest of the Arab world in readmitting Egypt to the 19th Arab League Summit at Casablanca.

This decision, prompted in part by Syria's need for Arab League support of its own position in Lebanon, marked the end of the Syrian-led opposition to Egypt and the 1977–79 Sadat initiatives toward Israel, as well as the Camp David Accords. It coincided with the end of the 10-year Arab subsidy to Syria and other front-line Arab countries pledged at Baghdad in 1978. Syria re-established full diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1989. In the 1990–1991 Gulf War, Syria joined other Arab states in the US-led multinational coalition against Iraq. In 1998, Syria began a slow rapprochement with Iraq, driven primarily by economic needs. In this period, Syria continued to play an active pan-Arab role, which intensified as the Israel-Palestine peace process collapsed in September 2000 with the start of the second Palestinian uprising (Intifada) against Israel. Though it voted in favor of UNSCR 1441 in 2002, Syria was against coalition military action in Iraq in 2003. However, the Syrian government accepted UNSCR 1483 (after being absent for the actual vote), which lifted sanctions on Iraq and established a framework to assist the Iraqi people in determining their political future and rebuilding their economy.

After start of the war in 2011, much of the Middle East condemned Syria's handling of the civil uprising, with only a few countries in the Middle East supporting Syria, most notably Iran, Iraq and Lebanon.

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Abkhazia4 September 2018See Abkhazia–Syria relations
  • Syria has an embassy in Sukhumi.
  • Abkhazia has an embassy in Damascus.
 Afghanistan
  • Taliban and Syrian officials met for the first time to discuss cooperation in 2023.[163]
 Armenia6 March 1992See Armenia–Syria relations
 Azerbaijan 28 March 1992 See Azerbaijan-Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 1992.[168]
  • Syria is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.
 Bahrain 23 January 1975
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 1975.[169]
  • Syria has an embassy in Manama.
  • Bahrain reopened its embassy in Damascus in December 2018.[170]
  • On June 19, 2022, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad received the credentials of Ambassador Waheed Mubarak Sayyar in an official ceremony attended by Foreign Minister Faisal Mekdad.[171]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Bangladesh14 September 1973See Bangladesh–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 September 1973.[172]
  • Syria is accredited to Bangladesh from its embassy in New Delhi.
  • Bangladesh is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Cairo.
 Brunei31 August 2002
  • Syria is accredited to Brunei from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
  • Brunei is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia.
 Cambodia15 October 2010
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2010.[173]
  • Syria is accredited to Cambodia from its embassy in Beijing.
 China1 August 1956See China–Syria relations
  • China recognized Syria's independence in 1946.
  • Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on 1 August 1956.[174]
  • Syria has an embassy in Beijing.
  • China has an embassy in Damascus
  • Both countries are close allies and strategic partners.

See Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Syria

 Georgia18 May 1993
Relations severed on 6 May 2018[175]
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 1993.[176]
  • Georgia terminated diplomatic relations with Syria due to the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia by Damascus.[177]
 IndiaMay 1950See India-Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations in May 1950.[178]
  • Syria has an embassy in Delhi.
  • India has an embassy in Damascus.
  • India and Syria have historical and cultural links dating back to silk route trade. The countries maintained relatively cordial relations during the Syrian Civil War.[179]
 Indonesia1949See Indonesia–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1949.[180]
  • Syria has an embassy in Jakarta.
  • Indonesia has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Both nations are the member of Non-Aligned Movement.
 Iran12 November 1946See Iran–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 November 1946 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Iran to Syria with residence in Beirut Mr. Zein-el-Abdine Rahnema.[181]
  • Syria has an embassy in Tehran.
  • Iran has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Syria and Iran are strategic allies. Syria is often called Iran's "closest ally",[182] the Arab nationalism ideology of Syria's ruling Baath party notwithstanding.
  • During the Iran–Iraq War, Syria sided with non-Arab Iran against its enemy Iraq and was isolated by Saudi Arabia and some of the Arab countries, with the exceptions of Libya, Lebanon, Algeria, Sudan and Oman.[183]
  • Iran and Syria have had a strategic alliance ever since, partially due to their common animosity towards Saddam Hussein and coordination against the United States and Israel.
  • Syria and Iran cooperate on arms smuggling from Iran to the Hezbollah in Lebanon, which borders Israel.[184]
  • In addition to receiving military hardware, Iran has consistently invested billions of dollars into the Syrian economy.[185][186]
  • Currently, Iran is involved in implementing several industrial projects in Syria, including cement factories, car assembly lines, power plants, and silo construction. Iran also plans to set up a joint Iranian–Syrian bank in the future.
 Iraq8 November 1945See Iraq–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 November 1945 when has been accredited Charge d'Affaires of Iraq to Syria Mr. Ibrahim Fadli.[187]
  • Syria has an embassy in Baghdad and Consulate-General in Mosul.
  • Iraq has an embassy in Damascus.
  • The political states of Iraq and Syria were formed by the United Kingdom and France following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.
  • Iraq and Syria are united by historical, social, political, cultural and economic relations, but share a long foreign drawn border. The land known as Mesopotamia is Iraq and eastern Syria and is called such by its inhabitants.
  • Political relations between Iraq and Syria have in the past seen difficulties, however, new diplomatic relations described by both sides as "Historic" were established in November 2006, beginning an era of close cooperation and political friendship between Iraq and Syria.[188]
  • During the early phase of the Syrian civil war, Iraq was also one of the few remaining Arab countries which support the Syrian government, and has abstained from voting to expel Syria from the Arab league.[189]
 IsraelSee Israel–Syria relations
  • Syria has been an active belligerent, with periodic ceasefires and use of proxies, against Israel ever since May 1948, when the Syrian army captured territory from the newly established State of Israel north and south of the Sea of Galilee.
  • Syria was an active belligerent in the 1967 Arab–Israeli War, which resulted in Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights and the city of Quneitra. On 19 June, a week after the war ended, Israel offered to return the Golan if Syrian would agree to a full Peace Treaty. However, Syria refused. From 1967 to 1973 there were sporadic bouts of fighting along the new border.
  • Following the October 1973 Arab–Israeli War, which left Israel in occupation of additional Syrian territory, Syria accepted UN Security Council Resolution 338, which signaled an implicit acceptance of Resolution 242.
  • Syria participated in the Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991.
  • In 2004 and 2005 Israel and Syria engaged in private talks discussing an outline peace accord. These were successful at a technical level, but failed to gain adequate political support.[193]
  • Hostility between Syria and Israel further increased following Israel's execution of Operation Orchard on 6 September 2007. Israel bombed a northern Syrian complex near Dayr az-Zawr which was suspected of holding nuclear materials from North Korea.[194]
  • In 2008 Syrian President Bashar al-Assad confirmed that talks with Israel have resumed through a third party.[195]
  • Buthaina Shaaban has also confirmed that Israel is ready to give up the Golan Heights.[196]
  • In October 2019, Israel was one of the countries that condemned the Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, but also because of deterioration of Israel–Turkey relations.
 JapanDecember 1953
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations in December 1953.[197]
  • Syria has an embassy in Tokyo.
  • Japan has an embassy in Damascus.[198]
  • Japan introduced sanctions against Syria in September 2011.[199]
 JordanSee Jordan–Syria relations
 Kazakhstan27 March 1992
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 March 1992.[205]
  • Kazakhstan has an consulate-general in Damascus.[206]
  • Kazakhstan donated funds to help Syrian refugees fleeing the country. In 2012, about $400,000 were allocated by the country through the OIC.
  • Kazakhstan sent its next humanitarian aid to Syria in January 2017. The 500 tonnes of supply of food and medications were delivered to Tartus Port on the Mediterranean coast of Syria.[207]
 Kuwait24 October 1963See Kuwait–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 October 1963[208]
  • Syria has an embassy in Kuwait City.
  • Kuwait has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Kuwait–Syria relations became somewhat strained due to the Syrian Civil War after Kuwait closed its embassies along with the rest of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf.
  • Bilaterial relations have since come to focus on humanitarian efforts for Syria instead. For example, Kuwait has hosted three international pledging conferences in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 raising 1.5bn,[209] 2.4bn,[210] 3.8bn,[211] and 10bn[212] respectively.
  • Relations between the two countries have since 2019 normalized.
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Kyrgyzstan28 May 1993

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 1993.[213]

 Laos 22 December 2004 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 2004[214]
 Lebanon15 October 2008[215]See Lebanon-Syria relations

Syria plays an important role in Lebanon by virtue of its history, size, power, and economy. Lebanon was part of Ottoman Syria until 1926. The presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon dates to 1976, when President Hafez Al-Assad intervened in the Lebanese civil war on behalf of Maronite Christians. Following the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Syrian and Israeli forces clashed in eastern Lebanon. The late U.S. Ambassador Philip Habib negotiated a cease-fire in Lebanon and the subsequent evacuation of PLO fighters from West Beirut. However, Syrian opposition blocked implementation of the 17 May 1983 Lebanese-Israeli accord on the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon. Following the February 1984 withdrawal of the UN Multinational Force from Beirut and the departure of most of Israel's forces from southern Lebanon a year later, Syria launched an unsuccessful initiative to reconcile warring Lebanese factions and establish a permanent cease-fire. Syria actively participated in the March–September 1989 fighting between the Christian Lebanese Forces and Muslim forces allied with Syria. In 1989, Syria endorsed the Charter of National Reconciliation, or "Taif Accord", a comprehensive plan for ending the Lebanese conflict negotiated under the auspices of Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco.

At the request of Lebanese President Hrawi, the Syrian military took joint action with the Lebanese Armed Forces on 13 October 1990, to oust rebel Gen. Michel Aoun who had defied efforts at reconciliation with the legitimate Government of Lebanon. The process of disarming and disbanding the many Lebanese militias began in earnest in early 1991. In May 1991, Lebanon and Syria signed the treaty of brotherhood, cooperation, and coordination called for in the Taif Accord, which is intended to provide the basis for many aspects of Syrian-Lebanese relations. The treaty provides the most explicit recognition to date by the Syrian Government of Lebanon's independence and sovereignty.

According to the U.S. interpretation of the Taif Accord, Syria and Lebanon were to have decided on the redeployment of Syrian forces from Beirut and other coastal areas of Lebanon by September 1992. Israeli occupation of Lebanon until May 2000, the breakdown of peace negotiations between Syria and Israel that same year, and intensifying Arab/Israeli tensions since the start of the second Palestinian uprising in September 2000 have helped delay full implementation of the Taif Accords. The UN declared that Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon fulfilled the requirements of UN Security Council Resolution 425. However, Syria and Lebanon claimed that UNSCR 425 had not been fully implemented because Israel did not withdraw from an area of the Golan Heights called Shebaa Farms, which had been occupied by Israel in 1967, and which Syria now claimed was part of Lebanon. The United Nations does not recognize this claim. However, Lebanese resistance groups such as Hezbollah use it to justify attacks against Israeli forces in that region, creating a potentially dangerous flashpoint along the Lebanon-Israeli border.

In 2005, Syrian troops withdrew from Lebanon after the assassination of Lebanese Sunni Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on 14 February 2005. In December 2008, The Syrian Embassy was opened in Beirut for the first time in history since both countries gained their Independence during the 1940s. In March 2009, Lebanon followed and opened its embassy in Damascus. On 19 December 2009, Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Al-Hariri visited Syria, and stayed in Damascus for three days meeting with President Bashar Al-Assad & breaking the ice between the two sides.[216]

 Malaysia1958See Malaysia–Syria relations
 Mongolia31 July 1967

Bilateral relations between Mongolia and Syria (in Mongolian)

 Myanmar15 June 1972

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 June 1972.[220]

   Nepal 26 February 1970 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 1970[221]
 North Korea25 July 1966

See North Korea–Syria relations

  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 July 1966.[222]
  • Syria has an embassy in Pyongyang.[223]
  • North Korea has an embassy in Damascus.[224]
  • North Korea is one of Syria's closest allies.[224]
  • In September 2015, the Syrian government paid tribute to Kim Il Sung in a ceremony for a new park in Damascus named in his honor.[225]
 OmanSee Oman–Syria relations
  • Syria has an embassy in Muscat.
  • Oman has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Since the start of the war, Syria and Oman have been strategic allies.[226]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Pakistan1948See Pakistan–Syria relations
  • Syria has an embassy in Islamabad.
  • Pakistan has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Both countries were on the silk route through which civilizational exchanges took place for centuries, Islamic missionaries that introduced Islam after 711 AD were from Syria. During the Yom Kippur War of 1973 (usually referred to as the Ramadan war in Pakistan) several Pakistani pilots assisted the Syrian air force.[227] In 2005 Syria and Pakistan agreed on mutual cooperation in the fields of science and technology. Pakistan also supports the Syrian Government since the beginning of Syrian Civil War.[228]
 Palestine18 July 2011[229]See Palestine–Syria relations
  • Syria is accredited to Palestine from its embassy in Amman.
  • Palestine has an embassy in Damascus.
 Philippines4 September 1946
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 September 1946.[230][231]
  • Syria has an consulate in Manila.
  • Syria is accredited to Philippines from its embassy in Kuala Lumpur.[217]
  • The Philippines has an embassy in Damascus.
 Qatar19 January 1972
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 January 1972.[232]
  • Syrian President Hafez Al-Assad sided with Saudi Arabia against Qatari Emir Hamad bin Khalifa when he deposed his father. Later on, Bashar Al-Assad visited Doha in 2003, which initiated a new chapter of economic, trading and investment relations.
  • In 2007–8, several Qatari-funded banks were established in Syria.[233]
  • During the conflict in Syria, Qatar vocally and materially supported different rebels with arms and funds against the government. Qatar has been the biggest sponsor of Syrian opposition forces during the civil war.[234][235]
  • In January 2019, Qatar said it would not normalise relations with Syria, which it wanted to remain excluded from the Arab League.[236] However, in March 2019, an athletic agreement was signed between the two countries and some low-level diplomatic contact resumed.
  • In April 2019, Qatar Airways was granted a license to fly over Syrian airspace and a Syrian ban on Qatar's Al-Jazeera station was lifted.[237]
  • In 2021, Qatar worked with Russia and Turkey to create a political solution to the conflict.[238]
  • Both countries are members of Arab League.
 Saudi Arabia26 June 1944See Saudi Arabia–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 June 1944 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Saudi Arabia to Syria Sheikh Abdul Aziz bin Zeid.[239]
  • Syria has an embassy in Riyadh.[240]
  • Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Following the Syrian civil war, the relations between the two countries have greatly deteriorated (until 2018).[241]
  • Between 2018 and 2023, both countries made a gradual reaprochement.[242]
  • Both countries are members of the Arab League.
 Singapore 28 May 2008 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 2008[243]
 South Korea
  • Syria has not established diplomatic relations with South Korea.[244]
 South Ossetia22 July 2018
  • Syria has recognized South Ossetia and maintains diplomatic relations with Tskhinvali.[177]
 Sri Lanka10 May 1969
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 May 1969[245]
  • Syria is accredited to Sri Lanka from its embassy in New Delhi.
  • Sri Lanka is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Beirut.
  • Syrian President Hafez al-Assad visited Colombo, Sri Lanka in 1976.
 Tajikistan29 March 1992

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 1992.[246]

 Thailand10 January 1956
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1956.[247]
 Turkey8 March 1946See Syria–Turkey relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 March 1946.[248] Diplomatic relations suspended since 2011. Syrian–Turkish relations have long been strained even though Turkey shares its longest common border with Syria and various other geographic, cultural, and historical links tie the two neighboring states together.

This friction has been due to disputes including the self annexation of the Hatay Province to Turkey in 1939, water disputes resulting from the Southeastern Anatolia Project, and Syria's support for the outlawed Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA), but relations have improved greatly since October 1998; when PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan was expelled by Syrian authorities.

Syria had embassy in Ankara[249] and two consulates–general in Istanbul[250] and Gaziantep.[251]

Both countries have been full members of the Union for the Mediterranean and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), although Syria's membership in the former was suspended in 2011[252][253][254] as well as from the latter in 2012.[255]

Because of the Syrian civil war relations between Syria and Turkey have become increasingly tense. Turkey closed its embassy in Damascus on March 26, 2012,[256] as well as its consulate–general in Aleppo. In April 2012 it hosted the second meeting of the Friends of Syria, the Arab-Western coalition in support of the Syrian opposition.[256]

Turkey has been taking in refugees from Syria, although abuse and injustice towards the Syrian refugees has been reported. Relations have further been degraded due to a serious incident that occurred with the Syrian downing of a Turkish military training flight in June 2012. Relations worsened further in May 2013 following a border incident involving two car bombs exploding in the town of Reyhanlı, Hatay Province, Turkey. At least 43 people were killed and 140 more were injured in the attack. The car bombs were left outside Reyhanlı's town hall and post office. The first exploded at around 13:45 local time (10:45 GMT)[40] and the second exploded about 15 minutes later.

The issue that cemented the crack in the relations was Turkey's reported dealings with the Islamic State (an enemy of the Syrian government) in oil and weapons by various sources. A video surfacing of the Islamic State being unopposed by Turkish security as they traveled across the border between Syria, questions more of Turkey's alleged role of simply fighting terrorism.

Turkish Military troops attacked the Kurdish backed Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) on October 8, 2019, after the acting US President [Trump] recalled US military troops from Syria the previous day. The US action to move troops out of the region was done so solely by the US president with stern disapproval by US military intelligence departments.

 Turkmenistan26 March 1992
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 1992.[257]
  • Syria is accredited to Turkmenistan from its embassy in Tehran.
  • Turkmenistan has an embassy in Damascus.
 United Arab Emirates19 January 1972See Syria–UAE relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 January 1972.[258]
  • Syria has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.
  • UAE has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Both countries are members of the Arab League.
  • In 2016, the Emirates was planning to normalize its relations with Syria, but was barred by the US.[259]
  • UAE re-opened its Damascus embassy in December 2018.[236]
  • In November 2021, the UAE Foreign Minister Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan travelled to Damascus to meet Bashar al-Assad. He was the first Emirati official to visit Syria, since the war. The US strongly opposed efforts to normalize ties with Syria.
  • On 18 March 2022, Assad travelled to the UAE to meet Emirati leaders, including Abu Dhabi's Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan and Dubai's Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum. It was Assad's first visit to an Arab nation since 2011.[260] On 19 March 2023, Assad visited the UAE again, with his wife Asma al Assad.[261]
 Uzbekistan 24 March 1992
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 March 1992.[262]
 Vietnam 21 July 1966
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 July 1966.[263]
 Yemen23 May 1965See Syria–Yemen relations

Europe
Main article: Syria–European Union relations

Greece and Cyprus re-established diplomatic relations with Syria and opened their embassies in 2021, making them the first EU countries to do so.[267]

According to the Syrian state news agency, in November 2021, during a visit to the Syrian pavilion at Expo 2020 in Dubai, the ministerial delegation of Slovenia confirmed unofficially its interest in re-establishing relations with Syria.[268]

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Albania[269]
 Austria7 February 1952
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 1952.[270]
  • Syria has an embassy in Vienna.[271]
  • Austria has an embassy in Damascus.[272]
 Belarus26 August 1993See Belarus–Syria relations
  • The diplomatic relations between Belarus and Syria started on 26 August 1993.[273]
  • Syria has an embassy in Minsk.
  • Belarus has an embassy in Damascus.
 Belgium20 March 1946
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 March 1946 when has been appointed M.R. Taymans as Charge d'Affaires of Belgium to Syria with residence in Beirut.[274]
  • Syria has an embassy in Brussels.[275]
  • Embassy of Belgium was closed on 29 March 2012.[276]
 Bosnia and Herzegovina1 December 1994
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 1994.[277]
  • Syria is accredited to Bosnia from its embassy in Belgrade.
 Bulgaria24 August 1954See Bulgaria–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 August 1954.[278]
  • Since May 1955, Bulgaria has embassy in Damascus and an honorary consulate in Aleppo.[279]
  • Syria has an embassy in Sofia.[280]
 Croatia29 August 1997See Croatia–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 August 1997[281]
  • Croatia is represented in Syria through its embassy in Cairo in Egypt and an honorary consulate in Damascus.
  • Syria is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest and its honorary consulate in Zagreb.
  • Diplomatic relations were terminated in 2012.[282]
 Cyprus1 February 1962
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 February 1962 when Cyprus has agreed to the appointment of Thabit al-Aris, as Syrian Ambassador to Cyprus.[283]
  • Syria has an embassy in Nicosia.
  • Cyprus has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Both countries re-established relations in 2021.[284]
  • Syrian president Bashar al-Assad became the first Syrian head of state to visit Cyprus in November 2010, resulting in the signing of five agreements between the two countries and pledges to work closer together on issues of common interest.
  • Christofias awarded al-Assad the Grand Collar of the Order of Makarios III, while the Syrian leader presented Christofias with the National Order of Ummayya with the Grand Sash.
  • Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Syria
 Czech Republic20 September 1946
 Denmark6 July 1953See Denmark–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 July 1953 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and plenipotentiary of Syria to Denmark with residence in Stockholm Jamal E. D. Farra.[286]
  • Denmark was represented in Syria through its embassy in Damascus until 2012, when relations between the two countries were severed.[287]
  • Following the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and subsequent attack on the Danish embassy in 2006, relations between the two countries were greatly strained.
 Estonia19 May 1993
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 May 1993.[288]
 Finland22 May 1953
 France18 June 1946See France–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 June 1946.[291]
  • France had an embassy in Damascus which closed 2 March 2012 and a consulate general in Aleppo which also closed 2 March 2012.[292]
  • Syria has an embassy in Paris and consulates in Marseille and Pointe-à-Pitre.[293]
  • France was the first Western country to give recognition to the SOC on 13 November 2012.[294]
 Germany 14 October 1952[lower-alpha 1] See Germany–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 October 1952.[295]
  • Syria has an embassy in Berlin.[296]
  • The German embassy in Damascus closed on 19 January 2012.[297]
  • Diplomatic affairs are currently handled through the embassy in Beirut, Lebanon.[298]
  • Germany hosts the most Syrian refugees in the EU.
  • Relations were severed in 1965 after Germany's establishing relations with Israel.
 Greece24 June 1947See Greece–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 1947 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and minister Plenipotentiary of Greece to Syria with residence in Cairo Mr. Georges Triandafyllides.[299]
  • Greece has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Syria has an embassy in Athens.[300]
  • On May 8, 2020, the Greek Foreign Minister Nikos Dendias announced a restoration of relations between Greece and Syria and assigned former ambassador to Syria and Russia, Tasia Athanassiou, as a Special Envoy of Greece's Foreign Ministry for Syria.
  • See Greeks in Syria
  • Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Syria
 Holy See21 February 1953
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 February 1953.[301]
  • Syria has an embassy in Rome.
  • The Holy See has a nunciature in Damascus.[302]
  • At present, the Holy See has comparatively good relations with Syria. It has sought to foster ecumenism between rival Christian factions in Antioch and to ensure the survival of age-old Christian communities in the country. The declaration Nostra aetate has made possible inter-faith dialogue and cooperation with Syrian Muslims.
  • Some Vatican leaders have also sought to foster greater political independence for Lebanon, which has been tied to Syria since the end of the Lebanese civil war. This call for Lebanese independence has traditionally been resisted by Syrian leaders.
  • John Paul II visited Syria in 2001 and was the first pope to have been to an Islamic mosque, the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus,[303] which includes the relics of John the Baptist.
  • Syrian President Bashar al-Assad attended Pope John Paul II's funeral.[304]
 Hungary13 October 1954[305]See Hungary–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 1954.[306]
  • Syria has an embassy in Budapest.
  • Hungary has an embassy in Damascus and honorary consulates in Aleppo and Latakia.[307]
  • Hungary sent a diplomat to procure consular affairs in 2020.[308]
 Iceland 6 May 2004
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 May 2004.[309]
 Ireland18 July 1975
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 July 1975.[58]
  • Ireland is represented in Syria through its embassy in Cairo, Egypt and an honorary consulate in Damascus.[310]
  • Syria is represented in Ireland through its embassy in Paris, France.[311]
 Italy27 September 1947See Italy–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 September 1947 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Italy to Syria Mr. Luigi Cortese.[312]
  • Syria closedits embassy in Rome.[313]
  • Italy closed its embassy in Syria in March 2012.[314][313]
  • In 2019, Italy announced it was considering re-opening its embassy.[315]
 Latvia 25 May 1993
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 May 1993.[316]
 Lithuania 25 May 1993
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 May 1993.[317]
 Luxembourg24 July 1953
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 July 1953[318]
 Moldova20 May 1993
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 1993[319]
  • Syria is accredited to Moldova from its embassy in Bucharest.
 Montenegro30 October 2008
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 October 2008[320]
 Netherlands24 January 1952
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1952 when has been accredited Minister of the Netherlands to Syria Mr. Knoop Koopmans.[321]
  • The Netherlands closed its embassy in Syria in March 2012.[314]
 Norway 11 August 1948
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 August 1948.[322]
  • Syria is accredited to Norway from its embassy in Stockholm.
  • Norwegian embassy in Damascus was closed in March 2012.[323]
 North Macedonia23 September 2010
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 2010.[324]
 Poland18 September 1945
  • Both countries established diplomatic relationbs on 18 September 1945.[325]
  • Syria has an embassy in Warsaw.
  • Poland had an embassy in Damascus which closed in July 2012 due to security reasons.[326]
 Portugal19 February 1975
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 February 1975.[327]
  • Syria is accredited to Portugal from its embassy in Madrid.
  • Portugal is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Nicosia.
 Romania9 August 1955See Romania–Syria relations
 Russia25 July 1944See Russia–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 July 1944.[331]
  • Syria has an embassy in Moscow.
  • Russia has an embassy in Damascus and a consulate in Aleppo.
  • As with most of the Arab countries, Russia enjoys a historically strong and stable friendly relationship with Syria.
  • Since 1971, Russia has leased port facilities in Tartus for its naval fleet. Between 1992 and 2008 these facilities were much in disrepair, however, works have commenced concurrent with the 2008 South Ossetia war to improve the port's facilities to support an increased Mediterranean presence of the Russian Navy.
  • Russia is believed to have sent Syria dozens of Iskander missiles.[332]
  • Russia has been strongly supporting Syria in the Syrian civil war, especially since the start of an air campaign in 2015.
 Serbia18 May 1946See Serbia–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 1946 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Yugoslavia to Syria Mr. Esref Badnjevic.[333]
  • Syria has an embassy in Belgrade.[334]
  • Serbia has an embassy in Damascus.[335]
  • Also, Syria is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and Serbia is an observer state.
  • Serbia, as one of the few European states, is one of the close allies of the Syrian government.
 Slovakia1 January 1993
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1993.[336]
  • Syria is accredited to Slovakia from its embassy in Vienna.
  • Slovakia had an embassy in Syria until 2012, when it transferred it to Beirut for security reasons.[337]
  • In 2015, it was definitively moved to Beirut.[338]
 Slovenia25 August 1997
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 August 1997.[339]
 Spain3 April 1948See Spain–Syria relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April 1948.[340][341]
  • Syria has an embassy in Madrid.[342]
  • Spain had an embassy in Damascus but it was relocated to Beirut, Lebanon in May 2012.[343]
 Sweden24 June 1947
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 1947 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Sweden to Syria with residence in Cairo Mr. Widar Bagge.[344]
  • Sweden has an embassy in Damascus and honorary consulate in Aleppo.[345]
  • Syria is represented in Sweden through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.[346]
  Switzerland1945
  • Switzerland closed its embassy in Damascus in 2012 for security reasons.[347]
  • Switzerland has a humanitarian presence in Damascus since 2017, through an office that coordinates Swiss humanitarian activities in Syria. Although the embassy in Damascus is closed, diplomatic relations between Switzerland and Syria have not been broken off.[347]
  • Syria has an consulate general in Geneva.[348]
 UkraineMarch 31, 1992
Relations severed on June 30, 2022

See Syria–Ukraine relations

  • Syria recognised independent Ukraine on December 28, 1991.
  • Relations were positive until 2011, but have been on pause since then.[349]
  • After 11 years of frozen relations, Ukraine severed diplomatic relations with Syria on June 30, 2022 when Damascus recognized the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics.[350]
 United Kingdom21 May 1942See Syria–United Kingdom relations
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 May 1942 when first British Minister presented his credentials to President of Syria Taj al-Din al-Hasani.[351]
  • In 2001, positive relations were developed between Prime Minister Tony Blair and the Syrian government, as part of the War on Terror.[352]
  • Since the 2011 civil war, relations have deteriorated, and the UK was one of the first countries to recognise the opposition as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people.[353]
  • The Embassy of Syria in London was closed in 2012.[354]
  • The British Embassy was closed in 2012.[355]

Oceania
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Australia12 May 1975
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 May 1975 when first Australian ambassador to Syria Mr. P. N. Hutton presented credentials to President Hafez al-Assad.[356]
  • Syria has an honorary consulates in Sydney[357] and Melbourne.[358]
  • Australia is accredited to Syria from its embassy in Beirut.
  • An Australian embassy was opened in Damascus in 1977. Syria opened an embassy in Canberra in the early 2000s.
  • Until the start of the current Syrian Civil War in 2011, the two countries enjoyed good relations.
  • Since 2011, Australia has imposed autonomous sanctions on Syria.[359]
  • Syrian embassy in Canberra was closed in 2012.[360]
 Fiji23 December 2010
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 December 2010.[361]
 New Zealand
  • Syria has an honorary consulate in Auckland.

Membership in international organizations

Syria is a member of the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa,[362] Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development,[363] Arab Industrial Development and Mining Organization, Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund, Arab Parliament, Arab States Broadcasting Union, ALBA (observer), Asian–African Legal Consultative Organization, Asian Parliamentary Assembly,[364] Association of Arab Universities, Bureau International des Expositions, Council of Arab Economic Unity, Customs Cooperation Council, Economic and Social Council, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, European Broadcasting Union (associate member),[365] FEAS, Food and Agriculture Organization, Group of 24, Group of 77, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes, International Civil Aviation Organization,[366] International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions, International Chamber of Commerce, International Development Association,[367] Islamic Development Bank (suspended 2012),[255] International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, INTELSAT, INTERPOL,[368] International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Standardization, IRENA (acceding), International Solar Alliance, International Telecommunication Union, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (suspended 2012),[255] Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (joined 2013, suspended 2021),[369] OTIF, Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean, UN, UN Commission on Human Rights, UN Conference on Trade and Development, UNESCO, UN Industrial Development Organization, UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, Union for the Mediterranean (suspended 2011),[253] Universal Postal Union, World Bank, World Court, World Customs Organization, World Federation of Trade Unions,[370] World Health Organization, WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization and International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

Syria's two-year term as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council ended in December 2003.[371] Syria was elected to the executive of the World Health Organization in 2021.[372][373]

Arab League

Syria was temporarily suspended from the Arab League since the beginning of the Syrian Civil War.[374] Six Arab Gulf nations recognised the Syrian National Coalition as Syria’s only legitimate representative on 12 November 2012, but Iraq, Algeria and Lebanon prevented the Arab League from following suit.[375] On 26 March 2013, at the Arab league summit in Doha, the League recognised the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, as the legitimate representatives of the Syrian people. The National Coalition was henceforth granted Damascus' seat at the summit.

This act of recognition was opposed by Algeria, Iraq and Lebanon.[376] On 9 March 2014, secretary general Nabil al-Arabi said that Syria's seat would remain vacant until the opposition completes the formation of its institutions.[377] In late 2018, Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco began lobbying for Syria's return to the League.[236]

In December 2018, after American president Donald Trump announced the partial withdrawal of U.S. troops from Syria, some countries initiated reopening of their diplomatic relations with Syria. Diplomatic relations have returned with Iraq, Saudi Arabia (in 2023), Egypt (after 3 July 2013), Tunisia, UAE (after 2018), Jordan (after 2021),[378] Lebanon (after 2021),[379][380][381] Algeria,[382][383] Mauritania (after 2018),[98] Bahrain (after 2018),[170] Kuwait (after 2018),[384] Libya,[385] Oman,[386][387][388][389] Comoros, Sudan (after 2018),[390] Yemen,[391] Somalia[40] and Palestine.[392]

Following the visit of Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir, the Arab League initiated the process of readmission of the Syrian Arab Republic to the organization,[393] while the United Arab Emirates reopened their embassy in Syria on 27 December,[394] and Bahrain[395] announced its intentions to reopen their embassies.

After the devastating 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, the Saudis, Emirati, Algerians, Iraqis and Jordanians contributed significantly to the relief effort. A week before, Al-Assad travelled to Oman for his first foreign visit since the quake.[31]

On 26 February 2023, President Bashar al-Assad had met with Iraqi, Jordanian, Palestinian, Libyan, Egyptian and Emirati speakers of legislative bodies, as well as representatives from Oman and Lebanon on behalf of Arab Inter-Parliamentary Union, to discuss further cooperation between the Arab states and Syria.[396]

In early April 2023, Saudi Arabia had invited Syria's Assad to the Arab League summit, ending regional isolation. On 13 April 2023, Syrian Foreign Minister Faisal Mekdad arrived in Jeddah to meet Saudi Foreign Minister Faisal bin Farhan.[397] After frayed relations during the Syrian civil war, both nations now seek "a political solution to the Syrian crisis that preserves the unity, security and stability of Syria,” according to the Saudi foreign ministry.[398]

On 15 April 2023, foreign ministers of GCC+3 format met in Jeddah and discussed the return of Syria to the regional organisation and so called Arab peace plan.[399]

On 18 April 2023, Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Faisal bin Farhan travelled to Damascus, met with Syrian President Assad and discussed further steps. The summit is scheduled for May 19, 2023.[400]

On 7 May 2023, at the meeting of the Council of the Arab League in Cairo composed of foreign ministers, was agreed to reinstate Syria’s membership in the Arab League.[401]

Earlier, Kuwait and Qatar had opposed al-Assad’s presence at the Arab League summit. The regional normalisation effort had caught the U.S. and its European allies by surprise, as they were opposing an “Arab-led political path” in solving the crisis. According to the statement, al-Assad would be allowed to the meeting on 19 May 2023, if "he wishes to do so". The new political process in Syria was described as the “Jordanian Initiative”.[402]

Nevertheless, Syria remains under western sanctions after millions of Syrians had been displaced or sought refuge in Arab and European countries during the war. The changes to the relations between Syria and other Arab States would allow many of them to return to their homeland, according to the announcements made earlier by Jordanian and Saudi officials.[403]

International disputes

Notes
  1. Syria and Egypt formed together the United Arab Republic from 22 February 1958, to 28 September 1961. Syria regained its independence on September 28, 1961, and Egypt kept the name "United Arab Republic" until 1971.

See also

References
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Further reading
  • "Syria". U.S. Department of State. 20 January 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
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