March 1933

The following events occurred in March 1933:

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March 4, 1933: U.S. President Roosevelt inaugurated for first of four terms
March 2, 1933: Classic film King Kong premieres
March 22, 1933: Dachau, first Nazi concentration camp, receives its first prisoners

March 1, 1933 (Wednesday)
  • The fictional defense attorney Perry Mason was introduced, along with his secretary Della Street, and detective Paul Drake, in Erle Stanley Gardner's novel, The Case of the Velvet Claws, published by William Morrow and Company.[1]
  • The Governor of Kentucky declared March 1 to March 4 as "days of Thanksgiving" and legal holidays on which banks could remain closed, and Louisiana and Alabama followed suit, bringing to nine the number of American states that had declared a bank holiday. Banks remained closed in Maryland, Michigan, and Tennessee, while Arkansas, Indiana, and Pennsylvania restricted withdrawals,[2] although the closures were voluntary.[3]
  • Born: Alan Ameche, American NFL player, in Kenosha, Wisconsin (d. 1988).
  • Died: Uładzimir Žyłka, 32, Belarusian poet, at a concentration camp near Kirov.

March 2, 1933 (Thursday)

March 3, 1933 (Friday)
  • At 2:32 a.m. local time, a powerful undersea earthquake rocked the Japanese island of Honshu. Shortly afterward, a tsunami almost 100 feet (30 m) high[11] roared ashore, killing more than 3,000 people and destroying 9,000 homes and 8,000 boats.[12] At an 8.9 magnitude, the quake was the largest ever recorded, rivaled only by a January 31, 1906 quake off the coast of Colombia and Ecuador.[13]
  • Ernst Thälmann, former Presidential candidate in the 1932 German elections and leader of the German Communist Party, was arrested at his Berlin apartment.[14] Notwithstanding his re-election to Parliament two days later, Thälmann would spend the rest of his life imprisoned, and would be executed at the Buchenwald concentration camp on August 18, 1944.[15]
  • Nohra concentration camp, the first of Nazi Germany's "early camps", was opened in by the Interior Ministry of Germany's Thuringia#Free State of Thuringia, governed by the Nazi Party, and was used to confine arrested members of the German Communist Party. At its height, it would house 220 prisoners before being discontinued in July or earlier when its inmates were transferred to a regular prison at Ichtershausen.[16] with around 100 prisoners arriving directly from regional court prisons, the barracks of the police in Weimar or via the regional court prison in Weimar.
  • Japanese troops, invading China, captured the city of Chengde, capital of the Jehol Province.[17]
  • The impeachment trial of federal judge Harold Louderback began in the U.S. Senate. Louderback would later be acquitted of all charges.[18]
  • On the eve of President Roosevelt's inauguration, more states closed their banks as Georgia, Idaho, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin, joined in declaring bank holidays, bringing to 25 the number of states under restriction.[3][19]

March 4, 1933 (Saturday)

March 5, 1933 (Sunday)

March 6, 1933 (Monday)
  • General Nikolaos Plastiras, opposed to Panagis Tsaldaris' taking office as Prime Minister of Greece, led a military coup and set up a dictatorship. Plastiras resigned the next day and was arrested, being replaced by General Alexandros Othonaios.[27]
  • President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 2039, declaring a nationwide "bank holiday", temporarily closing every bank in the United States and freezing all financial transactions. The 'holiday' ended on March 13 for the 12 federal reserve banks, and by March 15 for all banks, which then had to apply for a license.[3] Two thousand banks did not reopen after the holiday. On the same day, President Roosevelt placed an embargo on the export of gold and suspended the payment of gold to satisfy government obligations.[28] Finally, he declared a state of national emergency. Along with three other presidential proclamations of an emergency (on December 15, 1950; March 23, 1970; and August 15, 1971), the 1933 proclamation would not be rescinded until the enactment of the "National Emergencies Act", which would become effective on September 14, 1978, forty-five and a half years after FDR's decree.[29]
  • Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady of the United States, began holding weekly press conferences for female reporters.[30]
  • Born: Ted Abernathy, American baseball relief pitcher for seven major league teams between 1955 and 1972; in Stanley, North Carolina (d. 2004).
  • Died: Anton Cermak, 59, Mayor of Chicago, 19 days after being shot during an assassination attempt on President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt. Cermak's physician, Dr. Karl A. Meyer, said later that Cermak's primary cause of death was ulcerative colitis: "The mayor would have recovered from the bullet wound had it not been for the complication of colitis. The autopsy disclosed the wound had healed... the other complications were not directly due to the bullet wound."[31]

March 7, 1933 (Tuesday)
  • Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss suspended parliamentary procedure and began to rule as a dictator.[32]
  • Born: Jackie Blanchflower, Northern Irish footballer for Manchester United F.C., most notable for the callous treatment received from the club due to his injuries in a 1958 plane crash that killed eight members of the team; in Belfast (d. 1998).

March 8, 1933 (Wednesday)
  • The newly appointed U.S. enforcement director for Prohibition announced that federal agents would no longer raid places where liquor was served, concentrating instead on manufacturers and transporters, and leaving it up to the individual states to handle a "speakeasy".[33]
  • The Committees of Unwealthy Peasants, who had led the enforcement of collective farming in the USSR, were abolished. Having overseen the confiscation of grain from local farmers for government use, the committee members were left to starve along with their fellow villagers.[34]

March 9, 1933 (Thursday)

March 10, 1933 (Friday)
  • An earthquake of 6.4 magnitude struck Long Beach, California at 5:55 p.m., killing 127 people and injuring more than 5,000 others.[37][38] After the earthquake had destroyed more than 1,300 brick-and-mortar buildings in Long Beach, "including most of the public schools", California passed stricter building codes, given that the quake would have been catastrophic if it had struck during school hours. "The sight of school desks buried under mounds of bricks in Long Beach", an author would note decades later, "spurred the Legislature to upgrade construction guidelines in schools."[39]
  • Plans for a new radio network, the Amalgamated Broadcasting System, were announced by American entertainer Ed Wynn.[40]
  • Died Ahmed Sharif es Senussi, 59, Chief of the Senussi order in Libya.

March 11, 1933 (Saturday)

March 12, 1933 (Sunday)
FDR on radio
  • At 10:00 at night Washington time, President Roosevelt gave the first of his "fireside chats" to the American public in a nationwide radio broadcast, to explain why he had declared a bank holiday.[42] The term "fireside chat" was coined by CBS to describe Roosevelt's second address on May 7. In all, Roosevelt delivered 28 live fireside chats, the last on June 12, 1944.[43]
  • Six British electrical engineers of Metropolitan-Vickers were arrested in the Soviet Union and charged with espionage and sabotage of electrical stations. Despite protests from the British government, the prisoners were put on trial, with five being convicted on April 19. Two (MacDonald and Thornton) were kept in prison and the other four were expelled. In April, Britain and the USSR ceased trading with each other.[44]
  • Born: Barbara Feldon, American TV actress best known as "Agent 99" on Get Smart; in Bethel Park, Pennsylvania.

March 13, 1933 (Monday)

March 14, 1933 (Tuesday)

March 15, 1933 (Wednesday)
  • The Dow Jones Industrial Average rose from 53.84 to 62.10 points. The day's gain of 15.34%, achieved during the depths of the Great Depression, remains to date as the largest 1-day percentage gain for the index.[50]
  • Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss kept members of the Austrian Parliament from reconvening, starting the Austrofascist dictatorship.[24]
  • The Soviet Union halted the further seizure of grain from farmers in the Ukrainian SSR, and ordered some stocks returned from army reserves to the villages.[51]
  • Actor Cary Grant sustained a facial injury, and Fredric March and Jack Oakie escaped unscathed, after a bomb being used in the filming of the American war drama, The Eagle and the Hawk, exploded prematurely on the set.[52]
  • Clarence Cannon and Milton A. Romjue, both Democrats and U.S. Representatives from Missouri, engaged in a fist fight in the House Office Building. Minnesota Congressman Ernest Lundeen separated the two, shoving Cannon into an elevator and then taking Romjue to a first-aid station.[53]
  • New German Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels gave his first press conference, instructing journalists on their responsibilities. He painted the ideal media as a press "so finely tuned that it is, as it were, like a piano in the hands of the government on which the government can play".[54]
  • Born: Ruth Bader Ginsburg, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (1993–2020); in Brooklyn (d. 2020)

March 16, 1933 (Thursday)
  • Philippine Governor-General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and his wife left the Philippines after one year. Roosevelt was succeeded by Vice-Governor John H. Holiday.[55]
  • In Manchukuo, the puppet state set up in Japanese-occupied China, 50 people were killed and 70 injured when a passenger train derailed. Although few were hurt in the derailment, there was insufficient time to warn that the tracks were blocked, and a freight train crashed into the rear of the passenger train.[56]

March 17, 1933 (Friday)
  • Lyman Duff was sworn in as the new Chief Justice of Canada, having served on the Canadian Supreme Court since 1906. He remained on the bench until 1944.[10]
  • U.S. Senator Huey Long of Louisiana purchased air time on NBC radio to deliver his own nationwide address, describing his plan for redistribution of wealth.[57]
  • Adolf Hitler named Hjalmar Schacht as his chief economic adviser. Historian William Shirer would later write: "No single man in all of Germany would be more helpful to Hitler in building up the economic strength of the Third Reich and in furthering its rearmament."[58]
  • Hitler named Baldur von Schirach, age 25, as leader of the Hitler Youth.[59]
  • Born:

March 18, 1933 (Saturday)

March 19, 1933 (Sunday)

March 20, 1933 (Monday)
  • Giuseppe Zangara, 32, who had killed Chicago Mayor Anton J. Cermak while attempting to assassinate President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt, went to the electric chair at the Florida State Prison in Raiford, Florida. His last words reportedly were "Goodbye to the world. Go ahead, push the button."[63]

March 21, 1933 (Tuesday)
March 21, 1933: Adolf Hitler shakes hands with President Hindenburg on Potsdam Day.
  • The Day of Potsdam took place at the tomb of Frederick the Great. Hitler, President Hindenburg, and former Crown Prince Wilhelm appeared together in a ceremony choreographed by the Ministry of Propaganda to symbolize the transition between Germany's past before World War I, to its future under Nazi rule.[64][65]

March 22, 1933 (Wednesday)
  • Dachau, a Nazi concentration camp, received its first prisoners, as four police trucks brought in 200 inmates from the Stadelheim Prison and Landsberg Prison. The camp, built around a former munitions factory, was initially intended for the "protective custody" of officials of banned political parties (i.e. Communists). The following month, control of the camp was transferred from the police to the German SS.[64][66]
  • The U.S. State Department assured the President of the American Jewish Congress that the U.S. ambassador to Germany stayed informed about the treatment of Jews there, and that persecutions would soon cease.[67]
  • President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Cullen–Harrison Act, allowing the manufacture and sale of "3.2 beer". The Act would take effect at 12:01 a.m. on 7 April.[68]
  • Born:

March 23, 1933 (Thursday)
  • By a 441-94 vote, Germany's Reichstag passed the Enabling Act (Ermächtigungsgesetz), entitled "Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Nation", which gave Chancellor Hitler the power to enact new laws by decree, without need of legislative approval. The majority was obtained by the exclusion of 81 Communist party members, the reluctance of the Centrist Party to oppose the legislation, and the posting of Stormtroopers to observe the debate.[69]
  • In the last open session of the German Parliament, Social Democratic Party leader Otto Wels spoke against Adolf Hitler's request for formal approval of dictatorial powers.[70] Wels would be fortunate enough to be able to leave the country, and died in Paris on September 16, 1939.
  • Jewish protesters in New York City marched to the Mayor's office to protest against persecution of German Jews and to call for a boycott of German goods.[71]
  • Born: Philip Zimbardo, American psychologist and professor emeritus of Stanford University, in New York City

March 24, 1933 (Friday)
  • Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), the first high-strength industrial plastic, was created by British chemists Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett at the Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) plant in Winnington. After mixing ethylene and benzaldehyde, heating the combination under high pressure to 170 °C, Gibson and Fawcett created a waxy solid polymer. It wasn't until 1935 that Michael Perrin replicated the experiment.[72]
  • In an interview with the Universal Press Service, Adolf Hitler's press secretary issued a statement on behalf of the Chancellor. Hitler described reports of maltreatment of Jews and Catholics to be "dirty lies" and said that "there has been no discrimination whatsoever between Jews or non-Jews or Christians, or any other creed or race."[73]
  • In Berlin, the nationalist Jewish civil rights movement Central Union of German Citizens of the Jewish Faith described reports of persecution of Jews as "pure inventions", while the "Patriotic Society of National German Jews" stated that the reports were "foreign attempts to blackmail Germany".[74]
  • Ādolfs Bļodnieks became Prime Minister of Latvia, serving for one year.

March 25, 1933 (Saturday)

March 26, 1933 (Sunday)
  • In a telegram from U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull to leaders of American Jewish organizations, the State Department announced that its investigation of conditions in Germany had determined that "whereas there was for a short time considerable physical mistreatment of Jews, this phase may be considered virtually terminated."[75]
  • Born: Vine Deloria Jr., American Sioux Indian author and activist, at Martin, South Dakota (d. 2005).
  • Died: Eddie Lang, American jazz musician, 31, of complications from a tonsillectomy.

March 27, 1933 (Monday)
  • Japan announced it would leave the League of Nations (due to a cancellation period of exactly two years, the egression would become effective March 27, 1935)[76]
  • The Nazi Party ordered a one-day nationwide boycott of Jewish merchants, to begin on April 1 and to be enforced by the presence of SS troops outside Jewish-owned stores.[77][78]

March 28, 1933 (Tuesday)
  • All 15 people on board were killed in the crash of an Armstrong Whitworth Argosy. The crew of three and the 12 passengers died shortly after the plane took off from Brussels, bound for London. The crash would later be determined to have been caused by a fire that may have been caused by accident or by a passenger after the plane was airborne.[79]
  • Joseph Goebbels, a film fan as well as the new German Minister of Propaganda, addressed filmmakers and union representatives at the Kaiserhof Hotel in Berlin, describing his requirements that new films reflect the Nazi state's ideals without compromising the artist's vision.[80]
  • Died:
    • Ida Siddons, 76, American entertainer and comedian, known in the 1890s as the "Queen of Burlesque".[81]
    • Friedrich Zander, 45, Latvian-born Soviet rocketry pioneer

March 29, 1933 (Wednesday)
  • The "Law Concerning the Sentence and Execution of the Death Penalty" was issued in Germany to permit the death penalty by hanging for certain offences committed on or after January 30, when Adolf Hitler had become chancellor. This followed the "Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State", better known as the Reichstag Fire Decree, which President Hindenburg had issued on Hitler's advice on February 28. The offences attracting the death penalty under the new law included arson of public buildings; it was dubbed the "Lex van der Lubbe" because it permitted the execution of Marinus van der Lubbe for the burning of the Reichstag building in February, even though arson had not been a capital offence at the time. It would also be used to justify the executions of any persons who had been arrested for treason in the first two months of Nazi rule.[82]
  • As famine continued in the Soviet Union, Welsh journalist Gareth Jones made the first report published in the West of the Holodomor, the starvation and genocide taking place in famine-genocide in Ukraine.[83]
  • Born: Clifford Fyle, Sierra Leonean author, in Freetown (d. 2006).

March 30, 1933 (Thursday)
  • Tornadoes in the southeastern United States killed 68 people.[84]
  • The Trans-Jordan assembly voted 13-3 to repeal a ban against sales of land to foreigners, opening the way for Jewish colonization of Palestine.[85]
  • Raid against Berlin lawyers in the courts, at noon.[86]
  • Born:

March 31, 1933 (Friday)
  • Uruguay's civilian elected President, Gabriel Terra, established himself as the nation's dictator, ruling until his overthrow in 1938.[88]
  • The German government announced that the anti-Jewish boycott, set to take place on 1 April, would last only one day and then be "held in abeyance until Wednesday".[89]
  • The "Preliminary Law for the Co-ordination of the States and the Reich" went into effect, giving the national government control over the state governments. Under orders of Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick, the state legislatures and cabinets were "reconstituted" with Nazi Party members, and new governors were appointed from Berlin.[90]
  • The Justice Minister in the German state of Prussia directed that all Jewish judges, prosecutors and legal officers were to resign, and that Jewish lawyers should be limited in their number of cases. Dr. Hans Frank, the Justice Minister of Bavaria, "retired" all Jewish judges and lawyers on the same day.[91]
  • The Civilian Conservation Corps was established in the United States with the mission to relieve rampant unemployment.[92]

References
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  2. Regina (Sask.) Leader-Post, March 1, 1933, p. 1
  3. Fuller, Robert Lynn (2011). Phantom of Fear: The Banking Panic of 1933. McFarland.
  4. Gerald Schiller, It Happened in Hollywood: Remarkable Events That Shaped History (Globe Pequot, 2010) pp. 74-77
  5. "California Takes Holiday", Spokane Daily Chronicle, March 2, 1933, p. 3
  6. "Rainey Is Chosen Speaker of House", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 3, 1933, p. 1
  7. Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen, Encyclopedia of New Jersey (Rutgers University Press, 2004) p. 540
  8. Hal Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments (University of Illinois Press, 1989) p. 232
  9. Margaret Leslie Davis, Dark Side of Fortune: Triumph and Scandal in the Life of Oil Tycoon Edward L. Doheny (University of California Press, 2001) p. 272
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  11. Tad S. Murty, The Indian Ocean Tsunami (CRC Press, 2007) p. 51
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  13. Barbara Tufty, 1001 Questions Answered about Earthquakes, Avalanches, Floods, and Other Natural Disasters (Courier Dover Publications, 1978)
  14. "Communists' Leader Arrested in Berlin", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 4, 1933, p. 2
  15. Heinrich August Winkler, Germany: The Long Road West, 1933-1990 (Oxford University Press, 2007) p. 43
  16. Wohlfeld, Udo (2009). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum encyclopedia of camps and ghettos, 1933-1945. Volume 1, Early camps, youth camps, and concentration camps and subcamps under the SS-Business Administration Main Office (WVHA). Geoffrey P. Megargee, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-253-00350-8. OCLC 644542383.
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  18. "High Court of Congress: Impeachment Trials, 1797-1936", by William F. Swindler, ABA Journal (April 1974) p. 427
  19. St. Petersburg (FL) Evening Independent, March 3, 1933, p. 1
  20. "Presidential Oath Is Given to Roosevelt" (March 5, 1933), Pittsburgh Press, p. 1
  21. "Roosevelt's Inaugural Address Renews Pledge of 'New Deal'" (March 5, 1933), Pittsburgh Press, p. 6
  22. "Cabinet Sworn, Goes to Work" (March 5, 1933), Pittsburgh Press, p. 1
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  28. The Defining Moment: The Great Depression and the American Economy in the Twentieth Century. University of Chicago Press. 1997. p. 29.
  29. "Senate Finally Votes to End Great Depression, Officially". El Paso Herald-Post. El Paso, Texas. October 8, 1974. p. 1.
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  33. "Dry Director Bans Raids on Speakeasies", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 9, 1933, p. 2
  34. Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine (Oxford University Press, 1987) p. 258
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  36. "ROOSEVELT EXTENDS BANK HOLIDAY AFTER SIGNING EMERGENCY LAWS", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 10, 1933, p. 1
  37. "HUNDREDS ARE KILLED IN S. CALIFORNIA QUAKES", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 11, 1933, p.1
  38. "Long Beach Earthquake: 70th Anniversary" Archived 2012-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, Southern California Earthquake Center
  39. "The Day the Earth Shook: 127 Died 44 Years Ago", by Steve Harvey, Los Angeles Times, March 10, 1977, p. I-3
  40. "Third Radio Chain to Open", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 11, 1933, p. 2
  41. Hilmar Hoffmann, The Triumph of Propaganda: Film and National Socialism, 1933-1945 (Berghahn Books, 1997) pp. 89-90
  42. "ROOSEVELT EXPLAINS PLANS FOR RESUMPTION OF BANKING", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 13, 1933, p. 1
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  44. Jean-Marc F. Blanchard, et al., Power and the Purse: Economic Statecraft, Interdependence, and National Security (Frank Cass and Co., 2000) pp. 232–233
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  46. "Erickson Takes Walsh's Position", Spokane Daily Chronicle, March 14, 1933, p. 2
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  48. "23 in Four States Killed, 200 Wounded by Tornado", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 15, 1933, p. 1 "Tornado Toll Mounts to 43", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 16, 1933, p. 1
  49. "Leader in Peruvian Revolt Kills Himself", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 15, 1933, p. 2
  50. "Stocks Gain Three Billion", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 16, 1933, p. 1
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  52. "Movie Actor Hurt As Bomb Explodes", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 16, 1933, p. 1
  53. "Congressmen In Fist Fight After Session", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 17, 1933, p. 3
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  55. "Throngs Shout Farewell As Roosevelt Quits Isles", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 17, 1933, p. 2
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  57. Bill Bradley, Time Present, Time Past: A Memoir (Random House, Inc., 1997)
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  60. "Peasants of Russia Forbidden to Leave Collective Farms". Chicago Daily Tribune. March 19, 1935. p. 6.
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  75. "U. S. FINDS RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION ENDED", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 27, 1933, p. 1
  76. pdf Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine p. 2: text of the notice (french), p. 3: answer of Eric Drummond, Secretary-General of the League of Nations (1920–1933)
  77. "Hitler Party Orders Boycott in Revenge", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 28, 1933, p. 1
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  80. Richard Taylor, Film Propaganda: Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany (I.B.Tauris, 1998) p. 144
  81. "Burlesque's Queen of '90's Dies Virtually Penniless", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 29, 1933, p. 3 (online Archived 2015-12-23 at the Wayback Machine
  82. Koch, H. W. (1997). In the Name of the Volk: Political Justice in Hitler's Germany. I.B.Tauris. p. 43.
  83. "Welsh journalist who exposed a Soviet tragedy". walesonline.com. 13 November 2009. Archived from the original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
  84. "23 Are Killed by Tornadoes in Far South", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 31, 1933, p. 1; "Tornado Toll of Death 68", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 1, 1933, p. 1
  85. Isaiah Friedman, British Pan-Arab Policy, 1915–1922: A Critical Appraisal (Transaction Publishers, 2010) p. 343
  86. Margarete Limberg and Hubert Rübsaat, Germans No More: Accounts of Jewish Everyday Life, 1933–1938 (Berghahn Books, 2006) p. 25
  87. Smith, Harrison (2020-08-30). "Joe Ruby, TV writer and producer who co-created Scooby-Doo, dies at 87". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 2021-08-03. Retrieved 2021-08-16.
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  89. "GERMANS LIMIT BOYCOTT TO ONE DAY AS 'WARNING'", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 1, 1933, p. 1
  90. Peter Hoffmann, German Resistance to Hitler (Harvard University Press, 1988) p. 224
  91. Frank Bajohr, "Aryanisation" in Hamburg: The Economic Exclusion of Jews and the Confiscation of Their Property in Nazi Germany (Berghahn Books, 2002) p. 66
  92. Neil A. Wynn, The A to Z of the Roosevelt-Truman Era (Scarecrow Press, 2009) p. 102
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