Dakshina Kannada

Dakshina Kannada features a Tropical Monsoon climate (Am) according to the Köppen climate classification.[17] The average annual rainfall in Dakshina Kannada is 4,030 millimetres (159 in).[7] The rainfall varies from 3,774.1 millimetres (149 in) at the Mangalore coast, 4,530 millimetres (178 in) at Moodabidri and 4,329 millimetres (170 in) at Puttur near the Western Ghats.[18] The average humidity is 75% and peaks in July at 89%.[19]

Parshurama asks Varuna to create the western coast from the sea

As per the Gramappadhathi, Dakshina Kannada (along with the rest of the west coast) was created by Parshurama standing on top of the Western Ghats, and caused the land to rise from the sea by throwing his axe. It was then given to 64 families of Brahmins to settle. He created a temple on Kunjaragiri Hill in memory of his mother. Kutashila spoken of in the Markandeya Purana is believed to be the town of Kollur, the abode of Mookambika Devi. Several rivers in the district, including the Netravati, are believed to be mentioned in the Markandeya Purana. Other traditions in the local Paddanas speak of Mayurasharma's inviting of Brahmins from Ahichchhatraa and his organisation of the district.[22]

The earliest recording of what would become Dakshina Kannada district is found in Sangam literature, specifically in a poem of Mamulanar. M Govinda Pai identified the kingdom of Harita mentioned in the Harivamsha as Dakshina Kannada, specifically correlating the word Mudugara with Moger, part of the title of the fishermen community in the district. Pai speculated as an alternative that the entire strip from North Kanara to Kanyakumari was inhabited by Nagas who worshipped snakes, and that the character Shankachuda mentioned in several works including the work Nagananda, was from this region.[22] Several scholars identified the Satiyaputras mentioned in Ashoka's edicts as belonging to this region.[22]

The region, owing to its position on the west coast, also finds mention in Greek sources. Pliny mentioned pirates that infested the coast between the regions of Muziris and Nitiras, which many scholars have identified with the Netravati. Ptolemy mentions two ports: Barace and Maganur which modern-day scholars identified with Barsur and Mangalore respectively. Ptolemy mentioned an inland centre of pirates called Oloikhera, which has been identified with Alvakheda, or territories of the Alupas. The region also finds mention in a play called the Chariton Mime, which contains dialogue in a language scholars have variously interpreted as an early form of Kannada or Tulu.[22]

Alupa coins, 14th century

The Alupas (ಆಳುಪರು) ruled the erstwhile Dakshina Kannada region between the 8th and 14th century CE.[23] Their origins go back further, and if Greek identifications are to be believed the Alupas may have been prominent local chiefs since the 2nd century CE. The Halmidi inscription of 450 CE mentions an Alupa chief fighting as a commander of the Kadambas in a battle against the Kekayas and Pallavas. In a stone inscription near Gudnapur dated to c. 500 CE, the Alupas are mentioned as subordinates to the Kadambas. In 602, the Mahakuta Pillar inscription refers to the Aluvas as being conquered by Kirtivarman I of the Chalukyas. In the Aihole inscription, it appears the Chalukyas had crushed an Alupa rebellion in the early 7th century. During the reign of Vinayadtiya, it is mentioned how the Alupa chiefs helped the king restore peace after the disastrous war with the Pallavas. This Alupa ruler, Aluvarassa I, travelled from Mangalapura (modern Mangalore).[22] After a civil war, and the overthrow of the Chalukyas by Dantidurga in 753, the Alupas entered into tributary relations with the Pallavas. Starting in the 9th century, the Alupas began to lose territory and Rashtrakuta king Krishna II sent a military expedition which placed the Alupas firmly under Rashtrakuta control. When the Cholas occupied Alupa territory during the reign of Rajaraja I, Bankideva Alupendra drove the Cholas out. In the late 11th and early 12th century, the Alupas had to acknowledge the suzreinty of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, before it was attacked by the Hoysalas and forced to acknowledge their suzerainty.[22] An Old Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of Alupa dynasty of Mangalore, can be found at Ezhimala (the former headquarters of Mushika dynasty) near Kannur, in the North Malabar region of Kerala.[24]

A 1204 inscription shows Mangalore had regained its position as capital from Barkur. Over the course of the 13th and 14th centuries, Alupa power declined steadily until Alupakheda was annexed by the Vijayangara Empire. The first Vijayanagara inscription in the district was from 1345 in Attavara. For the next three centuries, the empire administered Tulu Nadu with a firm hand especially as Tulu Nadu was the conduit through which much of their western trade, and how they secured horses from Arabia. Harihara Raya built a fort at Barkur, and instituted a revenue system where half of crops went to the cultivators while the rest were divided between landlords, Brahmins and the state. Ibn Batutta mentioned how the Muslim governor of 'Honore' paid tribute to a Vijayanagara revenue collector in Barkur with the title Wadiyar. While passing from Karwar to Kozhikode, he stayed in a port identified as 'Manjarur', identified as Mangalore, and noted the country to be prosperous but with few wheeled vehicles.[22]

Two hero stones dated to 1398 in Bhatkal record a rebellion in Tulu Nadu. At this time, the Alupa rule was basically ended and replaced with Barakur and Mangaluru rajyas, sometimes united into one Tulu Rajya. The governors were often transferred: during the reign of Devaraya II, there were eight governors of Mangaluru rajya. During the usurpation of Saluva Narasimharaya, he did much to improve the horse trade, which had suffered under previous rulers with his governor Mallappa Nayaka. When Krishnadevaraya came to power, he largely relied on the local feudal chiefs to remain obedient. Sadashiva Nayaka of Keladi ruled over Barakuru, Mangaluru, Chandragutti and Araga rajyas.[22]

When the Portuguese first arrived in the region, they described Tulunadu as a prosperous trading country populated by both Moors (Muslims) and Genitles (Hindus). They were received well by Krishnadevaraya. But when they discovered Muslim merchants in Mangalore and Barakur, they blockaded the rivers leading there in 1526, they conquered Mangalore facing some resistance. Franciscan friars began preaching in Mangalore and the surrounding regions, while the Portuguese began collecting tribute in grain and other goods. In 1530, the Portuguese stormed the Mangalore fort again facing resistance they easily annihilated. In 1547, Aliya Rama Raya entered into a treaty with the Portuguese by which all imports and exports passed through their hands. This treaty was highly unpopular among the local chiefs, who often resisted Portuguese tributary collection. Some chiefs even supported the alliance of sultanates which defeated Aliya Rama Raya at the Battle of Talikota, hoping to get rid of Portuguese influence. In 1571, this failed when the Portuguese defeated Bijapur at Goa.[22]

Statue of Rani Abbakka

Rani Abbakka, the Chowta wife of Banga Raja and the Queen of Ullal, fought the Portuguese. She stopped paying tribute to the Portuguese, causing them to send a fleet to Mangalore and force a settlement, but soon she aided the enemies of the Portuguese and again stopped tribute payment. In 1566, she defeated a Portuguese expedition and killed its commander, causing the Portuguese in Goa to send an armada to subdue her in 1567. On 15 January 1568, however, the Portuguese defeated the Rani and forced her to sign a new treaty.[22]

The Nayakas of Keladi were a Veerashaiva family which had ruled a large portion of Tulu Nadu starting in the 16th century, when they had control over Mangalore and the rest of Tulu Nadu. Eventually in 1613, Venkatappa Nayaka I became independent and was the most powerful ruler in Tulu Nadu, taking territory which owed fealty to Bijapur and aiding Rani Abbakka. Under Shivappa Nayaka, the Nayakas of Keladi, now with capital at Bidnur, conquered the entirety of Tulu Nadu. Shivappa Nayaka utterly defeated the power of the Portuguese in Tulu Nadu. His successor made a treaty with the Portuguese where they could set up unarmed factories in Mangalore and Basrur, but were not to convert the locals. His successor, Keladi Chennamma, is famous for sheltering Rajaram and fending off Aurangzeb's forces. She also put down rebellions of Tuluva chieftains. During this time Arab traders, who were kicked out by the Portuguese, burnt Mangalore and other trade towns. In 1714, due to trade disputes, the Portuguese bombarded Mangalore and defeated the ruler Basavappa Nayaka I, who promised to ban Arab traders from entering. From 1757 to 1763, while Queen Veerammaji was looking after the kingdom, the Ali Raja of Kannur along with Maratha followers led a devastating raid into the district. They plundered to Manjeshwar and took a large booty from the Kollur Mookambika temple.[22]

Due to this unrest, Hyder Ali was able to sack Bidnur in 1763 and annex Tulu Nadu the same year. He conquered Mangalore, and set a governor Latif Ali Baig. This threatened English shipping in the Arabian Sea, so during the First Anglo Mysore War in 1766 Company soldiers from Bombay conquered Mangalore. However, as soon as he heard the news of the capture of Bangalore, Tipu Sultan made a lightning attack on Mangalore and forced the British to retreat only a week after they captured Mangalore. Hyder Ali then confiscated all Portuguese holdings in the region due to their support for the English. In 1770, Hyder Ali made a treaty with the British allowing for rice to be supplied from Mangalore to Bombay. The next year, he gave Portuguese some privileges back such as the ability to evangelize. However, in 1776, Hyder Ali revoked all these privildges, ejected the Portuguese from Mangalore and built up a large navy in the region.[22]

During the Second Anglo-Mysore War starting in 1781 the British quickly took over most of Tulunadu, as well as Bidnur, due to the treachery of the fort's guardian Iyaz Khan. In March 1783 however, they were forced to capitulate the fort. Tippu also sent a large force to besiege Mangalore, and after two months took the fort. Tippu's rule was harsh for the local chiefs, who he executed and dispossessed due to their perceived collaboration with the English.[22]

During the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799, the British returned the lands to their feudal chiefs. After Tippu's defeat, the British gave the Raja of Coorg several maganes which had been taken from him by Hyder Ali and set up their administration, with Thomas Munro the first Collector of Kanara. However Vittala Hegde, who had fled when Tippu campaigned in Tulunadu and returned at the start of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, began to develop an armed following to retake his lands. His ally Subba Rao attacked the Tehsildar of Kadaba, but was defeated by a British ally, Kumara Hegde. In July 1800, the British pursued the last remnants of Vittala Hedge's army into Shishila Ghat, where they were defeated and many of the chief rebels were arrested.[22]

At this time, the district was in severe distress due to the many bloody wars waged across it. The British deputed an administrator to study the economic condition of Kanara district, which noted severe deprivation in the south but more commerce further north. The Company then imposed harsh revenue demands on the poor peasants, who were already reeling from depression. The peasants organised themselves and participated in a 'no-tax' campaign, forcing the British to rethink their tax policy on the poor. The British then invaded Coorg when its ruler objected to British interference and took all territory of the state below the Western Ghats, adding it to Kanara district.[22]

In 1837, the British faced the Amara Sullia rebellion. After the British had deposed Kalyanaswami, a pretender to the throne of Coorg, he went to Bellare, and gathered a large number of supporters who marched on Puttur. Kalyanaswami defeated two companies of sepoys near Puttur, and Kalyanaswami then marched on Mangalore, causing the British to flee. For two weeks Kalyanaswami held Mangalore, released prisoners and set the homes of British soldiers alight. When British forces came from Thalassery to Mangalore, his poorly armed forces melted away. Kalyanaswami and other prominent leaders were hanged while others were deported to Singapore.[22]

Before 1860, Dakshina Kannada was part of a district called Kanara, which was under a single administration in the Madras Presidency.[25] In 1860, the British split the area into South Canara and North Canara, the former being retained in the Madras Presidency, while the latter was made a part of Bombay Presidency in 1862.[26] Kundapur Taluk was earlier included in North Kanara but was later re-included in South Kanara.[27] South Kanara included present Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Kasaragod districts and the Aminidivi Islands.[28][29]

During the 1920s, several newspapers in the district drew inspiration from the freedom struggle such as Tilaka Sandesh, Satyagrahi and others. South Kanara participated in the non-cooperation movement led in the district by Karnad Sadashiva Rao. All independence movement movements gained significant traction in the district, and Gandhi and Nehru both visited Mangalore during the Freedom struggle. In 1942 large numbers of leaders were jailed in the Quit India movement.[22]

In 1947 South Kanara joined India as part of Madras State. In 1956, the states were reorganised on linguistic lines. The Malayalam-majority Kasaragod subdivision became a part of Kerala, the Aminidivi Islands were joined with the Laccadive and Minicoy islands in a union territory, while the Tulu and Kannada majority Dakshina Kannada subdivision became a district of Mysore State in 1956 which later was renamed Karnataka in 1973.[30][31][32] The Udupi district was formed from the northern taluks of Dakshina Kannada in 1997.[33] Later, the Karnataka Government, for the purpose of administration, split the greater Dakshina Kannada district into Udupi and present day Dakshina Kannada districts on 15 August 1997.[34] Three taluks of the former district – Udupi, Karkala and Kundapura – formed the new Udupi district.[35]

Dakshina Kannada is the most religiously diverse district in Karnataka. Hindus form the majority, while Muslims and Christians form significant minorities. Muslims and Christians have greater presence in urban areas.[45]

Hinduism has always been a strong religion in the district. The coastal region of Karnataka has produced large numbers of scholars following various traditions of Hindu philosophy such as Smarta, Madhva, etc. Madhvacharya, founder of Dwaita, was from nearby Udupi and his philosophy is strong in the region. The Dharmasthala Shiva temple and Kukke Subramhanya Temple are major pilgrimage sites. Non-Brahmin Hindus historically followed more distinct traditions involving ritual dancing and veneration of bhuta spirits called Bhuta Aradhane, which is mainly ancestor worship. However the gradual urbanization and the rise of Hindutva in the district starting in the 1920s has made these religious traditions conform more to Brahminical codes or disappear entirely.[46]

Islam is the second-largest religion in the district. As the district lies along the Arabian Sea, it has always been a hub for traders from the Middle East riding the Indian Ocean monsoon. The first Muslims in the region were Arab Muslim traders who married local women. The Beary community, who make up 80% of Dakshina Kannada's Muslim population, claim descent from these unions. It is said the Masjid Zeenath Baksh, the oldest mosque in the region, was built in 644 CE, only 12 years after the death of Muhammad. Almost all Muslims in Dakshina Kannada are Sunni, following the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence.[47] Islam in Dakshina Kannada has also had dark sides when Tipu Sultan conquered the region and forced many of the local inhabitants, especially the Mangalore Catholics, to convert to Islam.[48] In recent years, the Bearys have been one of the main groups to travel to the Gulf for work, where they have been significantly influenced by the highly conservative Wahabi Islam followed there.

Christianity is the third-largest religion in the district. Christianity, although having an ancient presence on the western coast due to trade, did not gain a large following in Dakshina Kannada until the arrival of the Portuguese in the early 1500s. The majority of Christians in the district are Catholics, now called the Mangalorean Catholics.They arrived during the Goan Inquisition, fleeing persecution by the Portuguese who charged them with not following Christianity. A minority are Protestants, mainly lower castes converted by Protestant missionaries in the late 1800s who established numerous educational institutions.

Historically Jainism and Buddhism were strong religions in the district, as in much of the western coast, before being eclipsed by the various denominations of Hinduism. Jainism was the traditional religion of the Alupas as well as the Chowtas, who long defended Dakshina Kannada from outside aggression including the Portuguese. It is speculated most of today's Bunts were originally Jain before starting to follow Hinduism. Today there are over 10,000 Jains in the district as a whole.

Despite this diversity (and partially due to it), Dakshina Kannada has earned a reputation as one of the most communally sensitive districts in the country. The three religions of Coastal Karnataka were once more syncretic than they are now. For instance Muslims found important roles in paddana stories, dargahs attracted people from multiple communities, and the Muslims played significant roles in Hindu village festivities. However this soon changed at the end of British rule. The groundwork for this communalization started in the early 1920s, when some of the earliest RSS Shakas in India were introduced to the district by Gauda Saraswat Brahmins in contact with RSS founder K. B. Hedgewar. These Brahmins felt the social order threatened by Christian missionaries, who were gaining converts among both lower castes as well as some upper castes. Initially the Hindutva ideology was largely upper caste, and although Hindutva organisations tried to mobilise the masses they were largely unsuccessful until the 1970s. This resulted in the general marginalization of mainly Muslims but also Christians to some extent. Even today Billavas and Mogaveeras make up the vast majority of ground cadres of the various Hindutva groups in Coastal Karnataka including the RSS, BJP, Bajrang Dal, Sri Ram Sena. Partly because of this rising Hindutva, and also the nature of their constant travel to the Gulf, the Bearys began to adopt much more conservative and radical forms of Islam including aspects of Wahabism from Saudi Arabia. Communal relations between the communities have since deteriorated significantly. The rise of the extremist Karnataka Forum for Dignity, Social Democratic Party of India and Popular Front of India, which the Indian Government speculates are linked to the banned Students Islamic Movement of India, have contributed as well to exacerbating communal tensions. Communal riots over claims of cow slaughter or forced conversion are common. In recent years, the region has seen a rise in attacks and moral policing by vigilantes against interfaith couples, mainly from Hindu groups who claim the widespread presence of Love Jihad in the region.[49] The polarization has greatly decreased inter-religious interactions.[46]

Tulu is the main language of the district and is spoken by 48.57% of the population. It is the oldest language of the district and has a long literary tradition. Tulu has several dialects and sociolects including a Northern dialect near Udupi and Southern dialect centred on Mangalore. It is the majority language in Bantwal, Beltangadi and Puttur taluks. Many have demanded the language's inclusion in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Beary is the next largest language, spoken by c. 16.07% of the population, and is spoken by the largest Muslim community who were traditionally traders. Although in origin related to Malayalam, it has undergone significant influence from Tulu as well as Arabic, Persian and the languages of other foreign traders. It is not recognized as a language in the census. Malayalam, the third largest language, is spoken by 9.97%, by Maniyani (Yadava) and Vaniya community mainly in regions bordering Kerala. Konkani, spoken by 9.91%, is a major language of Mangalore city and other urban centres. The dialect of Konkani here has strong influence from Tulu and Kannada. Kannada, although the official language of the state, is only spoken by 9.27% of the population here. There are many dialects of Kannada spoken, some of which are Are Bhashe, spoken by Gowdas, and Havigannada, spoken by the Havyaka Brahmin community. Deccani Urdu and Tamil are spoken by small minorities in Mangalore city. Hindi is also spoken by very small minority.[4] Koraga is an indigenous tribal language still spoken by some individuals in the district.[50]