Lakes of Titan

The lakes of Titan, Saturn's largest moon, are bodies of liquid ethane and methane that have been detected by the Cassini–Huygens space probe, and had been suspected long before.[2] The large ones are known as maria (seas) and the small ones as lacūs (lakes).[3]

False-color, medium-resolution Cassini synthetic aperture radar mosaic of Titan's north polar region, showing hydrocarbon seas, lakes and tributary networks. Blue coloring indicates low radar reflectivity areas, caused by bodies of liquid ethane, methane and dissolved nitrogen.[1] Kraken Mare, the largest sea on Titan, is at lower left. Ligeia Mare is the large body below the pole, and Punga Mare at half its size is just left of the pole. White areas have not been imaged.

History

Titan lakes (September 11, 2017)
Size comparison of Ligeia Mare with Lake Superior.
Radargram acquired by the Cassini RADAR altimeter showing the surface and seafloor of Ligeia Mare along the transect highlined by the red line. In each column is shown the received power as function of time.
Vid Flumina,[4] a 400-kilometer-long (250 mi) river emptying into Ligeia Mare (in lower right corner of top image).

The possibility that there were seas on Titan was first suggested based on data from the Voyager 1 and 2 space probes, launched in August and September 1977. The data showed Titan to have a thick atmosphere of approximately the correct temperature and composition to support them. Direct evidence was not obtained until 1995 when data from the Hubble Space Telescope and other observations had already suggested the existence of liquid methane on Titan, either in disconnected pockets or on the scale of satellite-wide oceans, similar to water on Earth.[5]

The Cassini mission affirmed the former hypothesis, although not immediately. When the probe arrived in the Saturnian system in 2004, it was hoped that hydrocarbon lakes or oceans might be detectable by reflected sunlight from the surface of any liquid bodies, but no specular reflections were initially observed.[6]

The possibility remained that liquid ethane and methane might be found on Titan's polar regions, where they were expected to be abundant and stable.[7] In Titan's south polar region, an enigmatic dark feature named Ontario Lacus was the first suspected lake identified, possibly created by clouds that are observed to cluster in the area.[8] A possible shoreline was also identified near the pole via radar imagery.[9] Following a flyby on July 22, 2006, in which the Cassini spacecraft's radar imaged the northern latitudes, which were at the time in winter. A number of large, smooth (and thus dark to radar) patches were seen dotting the surface near the pole.[10] Based on the observations, scientists announced "definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane on Saturn's moon Titan" in January 2007.[7][11] The Cassini–Huygens team concluded that the imaged features are almost certainly the long-sought hydrocarbon lakes, the first stable bodies of surface liquid found off Earth. Some appear to have channels associated with liquid and lie in topographical depressions.[7] Channels in some regions have created surprisingly little erosion, suggesting erosion on Titan is extremely slow, or some other recent phenomena may have wiped out older riverbeds and landforms.[12] Overall, the Cassini radar observations have shown that lakes cover only a few percent of the surface and are concentrated near the poles, making Titan much dryer than Earth.[13] The high relative humidity of methane in Titan's lower atmosphere could be maintained by evaporation from lakes covering only 0.002–0.02% of the whole surface.[14]

During a Cassini flyby in late February 2007, radar and camera observations revealed several large features in the north polar region interpreted as large expanses of liquid methane and/or ethane, including one, Ligeia Mare, with an area of 126,000 km2 (49,000 sq mi), slightly larger than Lake Michigan–Huron, the largest freshwater lake on Earth; and another, Kraken Mare, that would later prove to be three times that size. A flyby of Titan's southern polar regions in October 2007 revealed similar, though far smaller, lakelike features.[15]

Infrared specular reflection off Jingpo Lacus, a north polar body of liquid.
Image of Titan taken during Huygens' descent, showing hills and topographical features that resemble a shoreline and drainage channels.

During a close Cassini flyby in December 2007 the visual and mapping instrument observed a lake, Ontario Lacus, in Titan's south polar region. This instrument identifies chemically different materials based on the way they absorb and reflect infrared light. Radar measurements made in July 2009 and January 2010 indicate that Ontario Lacus is extremely shallow, with an average depth of 0.4–3.2 m (1 ft 4 in – 10 ft 6 in), and a maximum depth of 2.9–7.4 m (9 ft 6 in – 24 ft 3 in).[16] It may thus resemble a terrestrial mudflat. In contrast, the northern hemisphere's Ligeia Mare has depths of 170 m (560 ft).[17]

Chemical composition and surface roughness of the lakes

According to Cassini data, scientists announced on February 13, 2008, that Titan hosts within its polar lakes "hundreds of times more natural gas and other liquid hydrocarbons than all the known oil and natural gas reserves on Earth." The desert sand dunes along the equator, while devoid of open liquid, nonetheless hold more organics than all of Earth's coal reserves.[18] It has been estimated that the visible lakes and seas of Titan contain about 300 times the volume of Earth's proven oil reserves.[19] In June 2008, Cassini's Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer confirmed the presence of liquid ethane beyond doubt in a lake in Titan's southern hemisphere.[20] The exact blend of hydrocarbons in the lakes is unknown. According to a computer model, 3/4 of an average polar lake is ethane, with 10 percent methane, 7 percent propane and smaller amounts of hydrogen cyanide, butane, nitrogen and argon.[21] Benzene is expected to fall like snow and quickly dissolve into the lakes, although the lakes may become saturated just as the Dead Sea on Earth is packed with salt. The excess benzene would then build up in a mud-like sludge on the shores and on the lake floors before eventually being eroded by ethane rain, forming a complex cave-riddled landscape.[22] Salt-like compounds composed of ammonia and acetylene are also predicted to form.[23] However, the chemical composition and physical properties of the lakes probably varies from one lake to another (Cassini observations in 2013 indicate Ligeia Mare is filled with a ternary mixture of methane, ethane, and nitrogen and consequently the probe's radar signals were able to detect the sea floor 170 m [560 ft] below the liquid surface).[24]

No waves were initially detected by Cassini as the northern lakes emerged from winter darkness (calculations indicate wind speeds of less than 1 meter per second [2.2 mph] should whip up detectable waves in Titan's ethane lakes but none were observed). This may be either due to low seasonal winds or solidification of hydrocarbons. The optical properties of solid methane surface (close to the melting point) are quite close to the properties of liquid surface however the viscosity of solid methane, even near the melting point, is many orders of magnitude higher, which might explain extraordinary smoothness of the surface.[25] Solid methane is denser than liquid methane so it will eventually sink. It is possible that the methane ice could float for a time as it probably contains bubbles of nitrogen gas from Titan's atmosphere.[26] Temperatures close to the freezing point of methane (90.4 K, −182.8 °C, −296.9 °F) could lead to both floating and sinking ice - that is, a hydrocarbon ice crust above the liquid and blocks of hydrocarbon ice on the bottom of the lake bed. The ice is predicted to rise to the surface again at the onset of spring before melting.

Since 2014, Cassini has detected transient features in scattered patches in Kraken Mare, Ligeia Mare and Punga Mare. Laboratory experiments suggest these features (e.g. RADAR-bright "magic islands")[27] might be vast patches of bubbles caused by the rapid release of nitrogen dissolved in the lakes. Bubble outburst events are predicted to occur as the lakes cool and subsequently warm or whenever methane-rich fluids mix with ethane-rich ones due to heavy rainfall.[28][29] Bubble outburst events may also influence the formation of Titan's river deltas.[29] An alternative explanation is the transient features in Cassini VIMS near-infrared data may be shallow, wind-driven capillary waves (ripples) moving at about 0.7 m/s (1.6 mph) and at heights of about 1.5 centimeters (0.59 in).[30][31][32] Post-Cassini analysis of VIMS data suggests tidal currents may also be responsible for the generation of persistent waves in narrow channels (Freta) of Kraken Mare.[32]

Cyclones driven by evaporation and involving rain as well as gale-force winds of up to 20 m/s (72 km/h; 45 mph) are expected to form over the large northern seas only (Kraken Mare, Ligeia Mare, Punga Mare) in northern summer during 2017, lasting up to ten days.[33] However, a 2017 analysis of Cassini data from 2007 to 2015 indicates waves across these three seas were diminutive, reaching only about 1 centimeter (0.39 in) high and 20 centimeters (7.9 in) long. The results call into question the early summer's classification as the beginning of the Titan's windy season, because high winds probably would have made for larger waves.[34] A 2019 theoretical study concluded that it is possible that the relatively dense aerosols raining down on Titan's lakes may have liquid-repelling properties, forming a persistent film on the surface of the lakes which then would inhibit formation of waves larger than a few centimetres in wavelength.[35]

Observation of specular reflections

Near-infrared radiation from the Sun reflecting off Titan's hydrocarbon seas.

On 21 December 2008, Cassini passed directly over Ontario Lacus at an altitude of 1,900 km (1,200 mi) and was able to observe specular reflection in radar observations. The signals were much stronger than anticipated and saturated the probe's receiver. The conclusion drawn from the strength of the reflection was that the lake level did not vary by more than 3 mm (0.12 in) over a first Fresnel zone reflecting area only 100 m (330 ft) wide (smoother than any natural dry surface on Earth). From this it was surmised that surface winds in the area are minimal at that season and/or the lake fluid is more viscous than expected.[36][37]

On 8 July 2009, Cassini's Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) observed a specular reflection in 5 µm infrared light off a northern hemisphere body of liquid at 71° N, 337° W. This has been described as at the southern shoreline of Kraken Mare,[38] but on a combined radar-VIMS image the location is shown as a separate lake (later named Jingpo Lacus). The observation was made shortly after the north polar region emerged from 15 years of winter darkness. Because of the polar location of the reflecting liquid body, the observation required a phase angle close to 180°.[39]

Equatorial in-situ observations by the Huygens probe

The discoveries in the polar regions contrast with the findings of the Huygens probe, which landed near Titan's equator on January 14, 2005. The images taken by the probe during its descent showed no open areas of liquid, but strongly indicated the presence of liquids in the recent past, showing pale hills crisscrossed with dark drainage channels that lead into a wide, flat, darker region. It was initially thought that the dark region might be a lake of a fluid or at least tar-like substance, but it is now clear that Huygens landed on the dark region, and that it is solid without any indication of liquids. A penetrometer studied the composition of the surface as the craft impacted it, and it was initially reported that the surface was similar to wet clay, or perhaps crème brûlée (that is, a hard crust covering a sticky material). Subsequent analysis of the data suggests that this reading was likely caused by Huygens displacing a large pebble as it landed, and that the surface is better described as a "sand" made of ice grains.[40] The images taken after the probe's landing show a flat plain covered in pebbles. The pebbles may be made of water ice and are somewhat rounded, which may indicate the action of fluids.[41] Thermometers indicated that heat was wicked away from Huygens so quickly that the ground must have been damp, and one image shows light reflected by a dewdrop as it falls across the camera's field of view. On Titan, the feeble sunlight allows only about one centimeter of evaporation per year (versus one meter of water on Earth), but the atmosphere can hold the equivalent of about 10 meters (33 ft) of liquid before rain forms (versus about 2 cm [0.79 in] on Earth). So Titan's weather is expected to feature downpours of several meters (15–20 feet) causing flash floods, interspersed by decades or centuries of drought (whereas typical weather on Earth includes a little rain most weeks).[42] Cassini has observed equatorial rainstorms only once since 2004. Despite this, a number of long-standing tropical hydrocarbon lakes were unexpectedly discovered in 2012[43] (including one near the Huygens landing site in the Shangri-La region which is about half the size of Utah's Great Salt Lake, with a depth of at least 1 meter [3'4"]). As on Earth, the likely supplier is probably underground aquifers, in other words the arid equatorial regions of Titan contain "oases".[44]

Impact of Titan's methane cycle and geology on lake formation

Rimmed lakes of Titan
(artist concept)
Evolving feature in Ligeia Mare

Models of oscillations in Titan's atmospheric circulation suggest that over the course of a Saturnian year, liquid is transported from the equatorial region to the poles, where it falls as rain. This might account for the equatorial region's relative dryness.[45] According to a computer model, intense rainstorms should occur in normally rainless equatorial areas during Titan's vernal and autumnal equinoxes—enough liquid to carve out the type of channels that Huygens found.[46] The model also predicts energy from the Sun will evaporate liquid methane from Titan's surface except at the poles, where the relative absence of sunlight makes it easier for liquid methane to accumulate into permanent lakes. The model also apparently explains why there are more lakes in the northern hemisphere. Due to the eccentricity of Saturn's orbit, the northern summer is longer than the southern summer and consequently the rainy season is longer in the north.

However, recent Cassini observations (from 2013) suggest geology may also explain the geographic distribution of the lakes and other surface features. One puzzling feature of Titan is the lack of impact craters at the poles and mid-latitudes, particularly at lower elevations. These areas may be wetlands fed by subsurface ethane and methane springs.[47] Any crater created by meteorites is thus quickly subsumed by wet sediment. The presence of underground aquifers could explain another mystery. Titan's atmosphere is full of methane, which according to calculations should react with ultraviolet radiation from the sun to produce liquid ethane. Over time, the moon should have built up an ethane ocean hundreds of meters (1,500 to 2,500 feet) deep instead of only a handful of polar lakes. The presence of wetlands would suggest that the ethane soaks into the ground, forming a subsurface liquid layer akin to groundwater on Earth. A possibility is that the formation of materials called clathrates changes the chemical composition of the rainfall runoff that charges the subsurface hydrocarbon "aquifers." This process leads to the formation of reservoirs of propane and ethane that may feed into some rivers and lakes. The chemical transformations taking place underground would affect Titan's surface. Lakes and rivers fed by springs from propane or ethane subsurface reservoirs would show the same kind of composition, whereas those fed by rainfall would be different and contain a significant fraction of methane.[48]

All but 3% of Titan's lakes have been found within a bright unit of terrain covering about 900 by 1,800 kilometers (560 by 1,120 mi) near the north pole. The lakes found here have very distinctive shapes—rounded complex silhouettes and steep sides—suggesting deformation of the crust created fissures that could be filled up with liquid. A variety of formation mechanisms have been proposed. The explanations range from the collapse of land after a cryovolcanic eruption to karst terrain, where liquids dissolve soluble ice.[49] Smaller lakes (up to tens of miles across) with steep rims (up to hundreds of feet high) might be analogous to maar lakes, i.e. explosion craters subsequently filled with liquid. The explosions are proposed to result from fluctuations in climate, which lead to pockets of liquid nitrogen accumulating within the crust during colder periods and then exploding when warming caused the nitrogen to rapidly expand as it shifted to a gas state.[50][51][52]

Titan Mare Explorer

Titan Mare Explorer (TiME) was a proposed NASA/ESA lander that would splash down on Ligeia Mare and analyze its surface, shoreline and Titan's atmosphere.[53] However, it was turned down in August 2012, when NASA instead selected the InSight mission to Mars.[54]

Named lakes and seas

False-color near infrared view of Titan's northern hemisphere, showing its seas and lakes. Orange areas near some of them may be deposits of organic evaporite left behind by receding liquid hydrocarbon.
Intricate networks of channels drain into Kraken Mare (lower left) and Ligeia Mare (upper right).
Hydrocarbon lakes on Titan: Cassini radar image, 2006. Bolsena Lacus is at lower right, with Sotonera Lacus just above and to its left. Koitere Lacus and Neagh Lacus are in the middle distance, left of center and on the right margin, respectively. Mackay Lacus is at upper left.
Titan's "kissing lakes", formally named Abaya Lacus, about 65 km (40 mi) across
Feia Lacus, about 47 km (29 mi) across, a lake with several large peninsulas

Features labeled lacus are believed to be ethane/methane lakes, while features labeled lacuna are believed to be dry lake beds. Both are named after lakes on Earth.[3] Features labeled sinus are bays within the lakes or seas. They are named after bays and fjords on Earth. Features labeled insula are islands within the body of liquid. They are named after mythical islands. Titanean maria (large hydrocarbon seas) are named after sea monsters in world mythology.[3] The tables are up-to-date as of 2020.[55]

Sea names of Titan

NameCoordinatesLength (km)[note 1]Area (km2)Source of name
Kraken Mare68.0°N 310.0°W / 68.0; -310.01,170400,000The Kraken, Norse sea monster.
Ligeia Mare79.0°N 248.0°W / 79.0; -248.0500126,000Ligeia, one of the Sirens, Greek monsters
Punga Mare85.1°N 339.7°W / 85.1; -339.738040,000 Punga, Māori ancestor of sharks and lizards

Lake names of Titan

NameCoordinatesLength (km)[note 1]Source of name
Abaya Lacus73.17°N 45.55°W / 73.17; -45.55 (Abaya Lacus)65Lake Abaya, Ethiopia
Akmena Lacus 85.1°N 55.6°W / 85.1; -55.6 (Akmena Lacus) 35.6 Lake Akmena, Lithuania
Albano Lacus65.9°N 236.4°W / 65.9; -236.4 (Albano Lacus)6.2Lake Albano, Italy
Annecy Lacus 76.8°N 128.9°W / 76.8; -128.9 (Annecy Lacus) 20 Lake Annecy, France
Arala Lacus 78.1°N 124.9°W / 78.1; -124.9 (Arala Lacus) 12.3 Lake Arala, Mali
Atitlán Lacus69.3°N 238.8°W / 69.3; -238.8 (Atitlán Lacus)13.7Lake Atitlán, Guatemala
Balaton Lacus 82.9°N 87.5°W / 82.9; -87.5 (Balaton Lacus) 35.6 Lake Balaton, Hungary
Bolsena Lacus75.75°N 10.28°W / 75.75; -10.28 (Bolsena Lacus)101Lake Bolsena, Italy
Brienz Lacus 85.3°N 43.8°W / 85.3; -43.8 (Brienz Lacus) 50.6 Lake Brienz, Switzerland
Buada Lacus 76.4°N 129.6°W / 76.4; -129.6 (Buada Lacus) 76.4 Buada Lagoon, Nauru
Cardiel Lacus70.2°N 206.5°W / 70.2; -206.5 (Cardiel Lacus)22Cardiel Lake, Argentina
Cayuga Lacus69.8°N 230.0°W / 69.8; -230.0 (Cayuga Lacus)22.7Cayuga Lake, USA
Chilwa Lacus 75°N 131.3°W / 75; -131.3 (Chilwa Lacus) 19.8 Lake Chilwa, near Malawi-Mozambique border
Crveno Lacus79.6°S 184.9°W / -79.6; -184.9 (Crveno Lacus)41.0Crveno Jezero, Croatia
Dilolo Lacus 76.2°N 125°W / 76.2; -125 (Dilolo Lacus) 18.3 Dilolo Lake, Angola
Dridzis Lacus 78.9°N 131.3°W / 78.9; -131.3 (Dilolo Lacus) 50 Lake Dridzis, Latvia
Feia Lacus73.7°N 64.41°W / 73.7; -64.41 (Feia Lacus)47Lake Feia, Brazil
Fogo Lacus 81.9°N 98°W / 81.9; -98 (Fogo Lacus) 32.3 Lagoa do Fogo, Azores, Portugal
Freeman Lacus73.6°N 211.1°W / 73.6; -211.1 (Freeman Lacus)26Lake Freeman, USA
Grasmere Lacus 72.3°N 103.1°W / 72.3; -103.1 (Grasmere Lacus) 33.3 Grasmere Lake, England
Hammar Lacus48.6°N 308.29°W / 48.6; -308.29 (Hammar Lacus)200Lake Hammar, Iraq
Hlawga Lacus 76.6°N 103.6°W / 76.6; -103.6 (Hlawga Lacus) 40.3 Lake Hlawga, Myanmar
Ihotry Lacus 76.1°N 137.2°W / 76.1; -137.2 (Ihotry Lacus) 37.5 Lake Ihotry, Madagascar
Imogene Lacus 71.1°N 111.8°W / 71.1; -111.8 (Imogene Lacus) 38 Imogene Lake, USA
Jingpo Lacus73.0°N 336.0°W / 73.0; -336.0 (Jingpo Lacus)240Jingpo Lake, China
Junín Lacus66.9°N 236.9°W / 66.9; -236.9 (Junín Lacus)6.3Lake Junín, Peru
Karakul Lacus 86.3°N 56.6°W / 86.3; -56.6 (Karakul Lacus) 18.4 Lake Karakul, Tajikistan
Kayangan Lacus86.3°S 236.9°W / -86.3; -236.9 (Kayangan Lacus)6.2Kayangan Lake, Philippines
Kivu Lacus87.0°N 121.0°W / 87.0; -121.0 (Kivu Lacus)77.5Lake Kivu, on the border of Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Koitere Lacus79.4°N 36.14°W / 79.4; -36.14 (Koitere Lacus)68Koitere, Finland
Ladoga Lacus74.8°N 26.1°W / 74.8; -26.1 (Ladoga Lacus)110Lake Ladoga, Russia
Lagdo Lacus 75.5°N 125.7°W / 75.5; -125.7 (Lagdo Lacus) 37.8 Lagdo Reservoir, Cameroon
Lanao Lacus71.0°N 217.7°W / 71.0; -217.7 (Lanao Lacus)34.5Lake Lanao, Philippines
Letas Lacus 81.3°N 88.2°W / 81.3; -88.2 (Letas Lacus) 23.7 Lake Letas, Vanuatu
Logtak Lacus70.8°N 124.1°W / 70.8; -124.1 (Logtak Lacus)14.3Loktak Lake, India
Mackay Lacus78.32°N 97.53°W / 78.32; -97.53 (Mackay Lacus)180Lake Mackay, Australia
Maracaibo Lacus 75.3°N 127.7°W / 75.3; -127.7 (Maracaibo Lacus) 20.4 Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela
Müggel Lacus84.44°N 203.5°W / 84.44; -203.5 (Müggel Lacus)170Müggelsee, Germany
Muzhwi Lacus 74.8°N 126.3°W / 74.8; -126.3 (Muzhwi Lacus) 36 Muzhwi Dam, Zimbabwe
Mweru Lacus 71.9°N 131.8°W / 71.9; -131.8 (Mweru Lacus) 20.6 Lake Mweru, on Zambia-Democratic Republic of the Congo border
Mývatn Lacus78.19°N 135.28°W / 78.19; -135.28 (Mývatn Lacus)55Mývatn, Iceland
Neagh Lacus81.11°N 32.16°W / 81.11; -32.16 (Neagh Lacus)98Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland
Negra Lacus 75.5°N 128.9°W / 75.5; -128.9 (Negra Lacus) 15.3 Lake Negra, Uruguay
Ohrid Lacus71.8°N 221.9°W / 71.8; -221.9 (Ohrid Lacus)17.3Lake Ohrid, on the border of North Macedonia and Albania
Olomega Lacus 78.7°N 122.2°W / 78.7; -122.2 (Olomega Lacus) 15.7 Lake Olomega, El Salvador
Oneida Lacus76.14°N 131.83°W / 76.14; -131.83 (Oneida Lacus)51Oneida Lake, United States
Ontario Lacus72.0°S 183.0°W / -72.0; -183.0 (Ontario Lacus)235Lake Ontario, on the border between Canada and the United States.
Phewa Lacus 72.2°N 124°W / 72.2; -124 (Phewa Lacus) 12 Phewa Lake, Nepal
Prespa Lacus 73.1°N 135.7°W / 73.1; -135.7 (Prespa Lacus) 43.7 Lake Prespa, on tripoint of North Macedonia, Albania and Greece
Qinghai Lacus 83.4°N 51.5°W / 83.4; -51.5 (Qinghai Lacus) 44.3 Qinghai Lake, China
Quilotoa Lacus 80.3°N 120.1°W / 80.3; -120.1 (Quilotoa Lacus) 11.8 Quilotoa, Ecuador
Rannoch Lacus 74.2°N 129.3°W / 74.2; -129.3 (Rannoch Lacus) 63.5 Loch Rannoch, Scotland
Roca Lacus 79.8°N 123.5°W / 79.8; -123.5 (Roca Lacus) 46 Las Rocas Lake, Chile
Rukwa Lacus 74.8°N 134.8°W / 74.8; -134.8 (Rukwa Lacus) 36 Lake Rukwa, Tanzania
Rwegura Lacus 71.5°N 105.2°W / 71.5; -105.2 (Rwegura Lacus) 21.7 Rwegura Dam, Burundi
Sevan Lacus69.7°N 225.6°W / 69.7; -225.6 (Sevan Lacus)46.9Lake Sevan, Armenia
Shoji Lacus79.7°S 166.4°W / -79.7; -166.4 (Shoji Lacus)5.8Lake Shoji, Japan
Sionascaig Lacus41.52°S 278.12°W / -41.52; -278.12 (Sionascaig Lacus)143.2Loch Sionascaig, Scotland
Sotonera Lacus76.75°N 17.49°W / 76.75; -17.49 (Sotonera Lacus)63Lake Sotonera, Spain
Sparrow Lacus84.3°N 64.7°W / 84.3; -64.7 (Sparrow Lacus)81.4Sparrow Lake, Canada
Suwa Lacus 74.1°N 135.2°W / 74.1; -135.2 (Suwa Lacus) 12 Lake Suwa, Japan
Synevyr Lacus 81°N 53.6°W / 81; -53.6 (Synevyr Lacus) 36 Lake Synevyr, Ukraine
Taupo Lacus 72.7°N 132.6°W / 72.7; -132.6 (Taupo Lacus) 27 Lake Taupo, New Zealand
Tengiz Lacus 73.2°N 105.6°W / 73.2; -105.6 (Tengiz Lacus) 70 Lake Tengiz, Kazakhstan
Toba Lacus 70.9°N 108.1°W / 70.9; -108.1 (Toba Lacus) 23.6 Lake Toba, Indonesia
Towada Lacus71.4°N 244.2°W / 71.4; -244.2 (Towada Lacus)24Lake Towada, Japan
Trichonida Lacus 81.3°N 65.3°W / 81.3; -65.3 (Trichonida Lacus) 31.5 Lake Trichonida, Greece
Tsomgo Lacus86.4°S 162.4°W / -86.4; -162.4 (Tsomgo Lacus)59Lake Tsomgo, India
Urmia Lacus39.27°S 276.55°W / -39.27; -276.55 (Urmia Lacus)28.6Lake Urmia, Iran
Uvs Lacus69.6°N 245.7°W / 69.6; -245.7 (Uvs Lacus)26.9Uvs Lake, Mongolia
Vänern Lacus70.4°N 223.1°W / 70.4; -223.1 (Vänern Lacus)43.9Vänern, Sweden
Van Lacus 74.2°N 137.3°W / 74.2; -137.3 (Van Lacus) 32.7 Lake Van, Turkey
Viedma Lacus 72°N 125.7°W / 72; -125.7 (Viedma Lacus) 42 Viedma Lake, Argentina
Waikare Lacus81.6°N 126.0°W / 81.6; -126.0 (Waikare Lacus)52.5Lake Waikare, New Zealand
Weija Lacus 68.77°N 327.68°W / 68.77; -327.68 (Weija Lacus) 12 Lake Weija, Ghana
Winnipeg Lacus 78.05°N 153.31°W / 78.05; -153.31 (Winnipeg Lacus) 60 Lake Winnipeg, Canada
Xolotlán Lacus 82.3°N 72.9°W / 82.3; -72.9 (Xolotlan Lacus) 57.4 Lake Xolotlán, Nicaragua
Yessey Lacus 73°N 110.8°W / 73; -110.8 (Yessey Lacus) 24.5 Lake Yessey, Siberia, Russia
Yojoa Lacus 78.1°N 54.1°W / 78.1; -54.1 (Yojoa Lacus) 58.3 Lake Yojoa, Honduras
Ypoa Lacus 73.4°N 132.2°W / 73.4; -132.2 (Ypoa Lacus) 39.2 Lake Ypoá, Paraguay
Zaza Lacus 72.4°N 106.9°W / 72.4; -106.9 (Zaza Lacus) 29 Zaza Reservoir, Cuba
Zub Lacus 71.7°N 102.6°W / 71.7; -102.6 (Zub Lacus) 19.5 Zub Lake, Antarctica

Lakebed names of Titan

Lacunae Coordinates Length (km)[note 1] Named after
Atacama Lacuna 68.2°N 227.6°W / 68.2; -227.6 (Atacama Lacuna) 35.9 Salar de Atacama, intermittent lake in Chile
Eyre Lacuna 72.6°N 225.1°W / 72.6; -225.1 (Eyre Lacuna) 25.4 Lake Eyre, intermittent lake in Australia[56]
Jerid Lacuna 66.7°N 221°W / 66.7; -221 (Jerid Lacuna) 42.6 Chott el Djerid, intermittent lake in Tunisia
Kutch Lacuna 88.4°N 217°W / 88.4; -217 (Kutch Lacuna) 175 Great Rann of Kutch, intermittent lake on Pakistani-Indian border
Melrhir Lacuna 64.9°N 212.6°W / 64.9; -212.6 (Melrhir Lacuna) 23 Chott Melrhir, intermittent lake in Algeria
Nakuru Lacuna 65.81°N 94°W / 65.81; -94 (Nakuru Lacuna) 188 Lake Nakuru, intermittent lake in Kenya
Ngami Lacuna 66.7°N 213.9°W / 66.7; -213.9 (Ngami Lacuna) 37.2 Lake Ngami, in Botswana,[57] and like its terrestrial namesake is considered to be endorheic
Racetrack Lacuna 66.1°N 224.9°W / 66.1; -224.9 (Racetrack Lacuna) 9.9 Racetrack Playa, intermittent lake in California, USA
Uyuni Lacuna 66.3°N 228.4°W / 66.3; -228.4 (Uyuni Lacuna) 27 Salar de Uyuni, intermittent lake and world's largest salt flat in Bolivia
Veliko Lacuna 76.8°S 33.1°W / -76.8; -33.1 (Veliko Lacuna) 93 Veliko Lake, intermittent lake in Bosnia-Herzegovina
Woytchugga Lacuna 68.88°N 109.0°W / 68.88; -109.0 (Woytchugga Lacuna) 449 Indications are that it is an intermittent lake and so was named in 2013 after Lake Woytchugga near Wilcannia, Australia.[58][59]

Bay names of Titan

Name Coordinates Liquid body Length (km)[note 1] Source of name
Arnar Sinus 72.6°N 322°W / 72.6; -322 (Arnar Sinus) Kraken Mare 101 Arnar, fjord in Iceland
Avacha Sinus 82.87°N 335.43°W / 82.87; -335.43 (Avacha Sinus) Punga Mare 51 Avacha Bay in Kamchatka, Russia
Baffin Sinus 80.35°N 344.62°W / 80.35; -344.62 (Baffin Sinus) Kraken Mare 110 Baffin Bay between Canada and Greenland
Boni SInus 78.69°N 345.38°W / 78.69; -345.38 (Boni Sinus) Kraken Mare 54 Gulf of Boni in Indonesia
Dingle Sinus 81.36°N 336.44°W / 81.36; -336.44 (Dingle Sinus) Kraken Mare 80 Dingle Bay in Ireland
Fagaloa Sinus 82.9°N 320.5°W / 82.9; -320.5 (Fagaloa Sinus) Punga Mare 33 Fagaloa Bay in Upolu Island, Samoa
Flensborg Sinus 64.9°N 295.3°W / 64.9; -295.3 (Flensborg Sinus) Kraken Mare 115 Flensburg Firth, fjord between Denmark and Germany
Fundy Sinus 83.26°N 315.64°W / 83.26; -315.64 (Fundy Sinus) Punga Mare 91 Bay of Fundy in Canada that hosts the world's largest tides[60]
Gabes Sinus 67.6°N 289.6°W / 67.6; -289.6 (Gabes Sinus) Kraken Mare 147 Gabes, or Syrtis minor, a bay in Tunisia
Genova Sinus 80.11°N 326.61°W / 80.11; -326.61 (Genova Sinus) Kraken Mare 125 Gulf of Genoa in Italy
Kumbaru Sinus 56.8°N 303.8°W / 56.8; -303.8 (Kumbaru Sinus) Kraken Mare 122 Bay in India
Lulworth Sinus 67.19°N 316.88°W / 67.19; -316.88 (Lulworth Sinus) Kraken Mare 24 Lulworth Cove in southern England
Maizuru Sinus 78.9°N 352.53°W / 78.9; -352.53 (Maizuru Sinus) Kraken Mare 92 Maizuru Bay in Japan
Manza Sinus 79.29°N 346.1°W / 79.29; -346.1 (Manza Sinus) Kraken Mare 37 Manza Bay in Tanzania
Moray Sinus 76.6°N 281.4°W / 76.6; -281.4 (Moray Sinus) Kraken Mare 204 Moray Firth in Scotland
Nicoya Sinus 74.8°N 251.2°W / 74.8; -251.2 (Nicoya Sinus) Ligeia Mare 130 Gulf of Nicoya in Costa Rica
Okahu Sinus 73.7°N 282°W / 73.7; -282 (Okahu Sinus) Kraken Mare 141 Okahu Bay near Auckland, New Zealand
Patos Sinus 77.2°N 224.8°W / 77.2; -224.8 (Patos Sinus) Ligeia Mare 103 Patos, fjord in Chile
Puget Sinus 82.4°N 241.1°W / 82.4; -241.1 (Puget Sinus) Ligeia Mare 93 Puget Sound in Washington, United States
Rombaken Sinus 75.3°N 232.9°W / 75.3; -232.9 (Rombaken Sinus) Ligeia Mare 92.5 Rombaken, fjord in Norway
Saldanha Sinus 82.42°N 322.5°W / 82.42; -322.5 (Saldanha Sinus) Punga Mare 18 Saldanha Bay in South Africa
Skelton Sinus 76.8°N 314.9°W / 76.8; -314.9 (Skelton Sinus) Kraken Mare 73 Skelton Glacier near Ross Sea, Antarctica
Trold Sinus 71.3°N 292.7°W / 71.3; -292.7 (Trold Sinus) Kraken Mare 118 Trold Fiord Formation in Nunavut, Canada
Tumaco Sinus 82.55°N 315.22°W / 82.55; -315.22 (Puget Sinus) Punga Mare 31 Tumaco, port city and bay in Colombia
Tunu Sinus 79.2°N 299.8°W / 79.2; -299.8 (Tunu Sinus) Kraken Mare 134 Tunu, fjord in Greenland
Wakasa Sinus 80.7°N 270°W / 80.7; -270 (Wakasa Sinus) Ligeia Mare 146 Wakasa Bay in Japan
Walvis Sinus 58.2°N 324.1°W / 58.2; -324.1 (Walvis Sinus) Kraken Mare 253 Walvis Bay in Namibia

Island names of Titan

InsulaCoordinatesLiquid bodyNamed after
Bermoothes Insula67.1°N 317.1°W / 67.1; -317.1 (Bermoothes Insula)Kraken MareBermoothes, an enchanted island in Shakespeare's Tempest
Bimini Insula73.3°N 305.4°W / 73.3; -305.4 (Bimini Insula)Kraken MareBimini, island in Arawak legend said to contain the fountain of youth.
Bralgu Insula76.2°N 251.5°W / 76.2; -251.5 (Bralgu Insula)Ligeia MareBaralku, in Yolngu culture, the island of the dead and the place where the Djanggawul, the three creator siblings, originated.
Buyan Insula77.3°N 245.1°W / 77.3; -245.1 (Buyan Insula)Ligeia MareBuyan, a rocky island in Russian folk tales located on the south shore of Baltic Sea
Hawaiki Insulae 84.32°N 327.07°W / 84.32; -327.07 (Hawaiki Insulae) Punga Mare Hawaiki, original home island of the Polynesian people in local mythology
Hufaidh Insulae67°N 320.3°W / 67; -320.3 (Hufaidh Insulae)Kraken MareHufaidh, legendary island in the marshes of southern Iraq
Krocylea Insulae69.1°N 302.4°W / 69.1; -302.4 (Kocylea Insulae)Kraken MareCrocylea, mythological Greek island in the Ionian Sea, near Ithaca
Mayda Insula79.1°N 312.2°W / 79.1; -312.2 (Mayda Insula)Kraken MareMayda, legendary island in the northeast Atlantic
Onogoro Insula 83.28°N 311.7°W / 83.28; -311.7 (Onogoro Insula) Punga Mare Onogoro Island, Japanese mythological island
Penglai Insula72.2°N 308.7°W / 72.2; -308.7 (Penglai Insula)Kraken MarePenglai, mythological Chinese mountain island where immortals and gods lived.
Planctae Insulae77.5°N 251.3°W / 77.5; -251.3 (Planctae Insulae)Ligeia MareSymplegades, the "clashing rocks" in Bosphorus, which only Argo was said to have successfully passed the rocks.
Royllo Insula38.3°N 297.2°W / 38.3; -297.2 (Royllo Insula)Kraken MareRoyllo, legendary island in the Atlantic, on verge of unknown, near Antilla and Saint Brandan.

See also

  • List of largest lakes and seas in the Solar System

Notes

  1. The USGS web site gives size as a "diameter", but it is actually the length in the longest dimension.

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