Eurovision Song Contest 1993

The Eurovision Song Contest 1993 was the 38th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest, held on 15 May 1993 at the Green Glens Arena in Millstreet, Ireland. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ), and presented by Fionnuala Sweeney, the contest was held in Ireland following the country's victory at the 1992 contest with the song "Why Me?" by Linda Martin.

Eurovision Song Contest 1993
Dates
Final15 May 1993
Host
VenueGreen Glens Arena,
Millstreet, Ireland
Presenter(s)Fionnuala Sweeney
Musical directorNoel Kelehan
Directed byAnita Notaro
Executive supervisorChristian Clausen
Executive producerLiam Miller
Host broadcasterRadio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ)
Websiteeurovision.tv/event/millstreet-1993
Participants
Number of entries25
Debuting countries
Returning countriesNone
Non-returning countries Yugoslavia
Participation map
  • A coloured map of the countries of Europe
         Participating countries     Countries eliminated in Kvalifikacija za Millstreet     Countries that participated in the past but not in 1993
Vote
Voting systemEach country awarded 12, 10, 8–1 point(s) to their 10 favourite songs
Winning song Ireland
"In Your Eyes"

Twenty-five countries participated in the contest – the largest event yet held. Twenty-two of the twenty-three countries which had participated in the previous year's event returned, with Yugoslavia prevented from competing following the closure of its national broadcaster and the placement of sanctions against the country as a response to the Yugoslav Wars. In response to an increased interest in participation from former Eastern Bloc countries following the collapse of communist regimes, three spaces in the event were allocated to first-time participating countries, which would be determined through a qualifying competition. Held in April 1993 in Ljubljana, Slovenia, Kvalifikacija za Millstreet featured entries from seven countries and resulted in the entries from the former Yugoslav republics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia progressing to the contest in Millstreet.

For the second year in a row the winner was Ireland with the song "In Your Eyes", written by Jimmy Walsh and performed by Niamh Kavanagh. The United Kingdom, Switzerland, France, and Norway completed the top five, with the United Kingdom achieving their second consecutive runner-up placing. Ireland achieved their fifth victory in the contest, matching the overall record held by France and Luxembourg, and joined Israel, Luxembourg and Spain as countries with wins in successive contests.

Location
Photograph of the exterior of the Great Southern Hotel in Killarney in autumn 2002.
Photograph of the exterior of Cork City Hall in 2009 taken from across the River Lee
The Great Southern Hotel in Killarney (top) and Cork's City Hall (bottom) hosted receptions for the participating delegations during the week of the contest.
Location of host town Millstreet (in blue); Dublin, which hosted all the previous Irish-held contests (in red); and other towns and cities which held events during the contest week (in green)

The 1993 contest took place in Millstreet, Ireland, following the country's victory at the 1992 edition with the song "Why Me?", performed by Linda Martin. It was the fourth time that Ireland had hosted the contest, having previously staged the event in 1971, 1981 and 1988, with all previous events held in the country's capital city Dublin.[1][2]

The Green Glens Arena, an indoor arena used primarily for equestrian events, was chosen as the contest venue, with its owner Noel C Duggan offering the use of the venue for free, as well as pledging a further £200,000 from local businesses for the staging of the event.[3][4] Individuals within RTÉ, including the organisation's Director-General Joe Barry, were interested in staging the event outside of Dublin for the first time, and alongside Dublin RTÉ production teams scouted locations in rural Ireland in the months following Ireland's win.[5] Although the contest had previously been held in smaller towns, such as Harrogate, a English town of 70,000 people which staged the 1982 contest, with a population of 1,500 Millstreet became the smallest settlement to stage the event at that time and continues to hold the record as of 2023.[6] The arena would have an audience of around 3,500 during the contest.[3] The choice of Millstreet and the Green Glens Arena to stage the contest was met with some ridicule, with BBC journalist Nicholas Witchell referring to the venue as a "cowshed", however Millstreet had won out over more conventional locations, including Dublin and Galway, due to the facilities available in the Green Glens Arena and the town's local community which were hugely enthusiastic about the event being staged in their area.[6][5][7]

Due to the small size of Millstreet, delegations were primarily based in surrounding settlements, including Killarney and other towns in counties Cork and Kerry.[5][8] Alongside Millstreet itself, Killarney and Cork City held receptions for the competing delegates during the week of the contest, at the Great Southern Hotel in Killarney and Cork's City Hall, the latter hosted by the Minister for Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht.[9]

Participating countries
Further information: Kvalifikacija za Millstreet and List of countries in the Eurovision Song Contest

In the late 1980s and early 1990s the Eurovision Song Contest regularly featured over twenty participating countries in each edition, and by 1992 an increasing number of countries had begun expressing an interested in joining the event for the first time. This came as a result of revolutions among many European countries that led to the fall of communist regimes and the formation of liberal democratic government among existing states and newly sovereign countries formed from entities within the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.[1][10] In an effort to incorporate these new countries into the contest, the contest organisers the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) raised the maximum number of participating countries to twenty-five – the highest number yet seen in the contest – creating space for three new countries to participate alongside twenty-two of the twenty-three countries which had participated in the 1992 contest.[4][10] Yugoslavia – which had participated in the contest since 1961[lower-alpha 1] – was unable to participate as its EBU member broadcaster Jugoslovenska radiotelevizija (JRT) was disbanded in 1992 and its successor organisations Radio-televizija Srbije (RTS) and Radio-televizija Crne Gore (RTCG) were barred from joining the EBU due to sanctions against the country as part of the Yugoslav Wars.[4][12]

As a temporary solution for the 1993 contest, a qualifying round was organised to determine the three countries which would join the contest for the first time. Subsequently, for the 1994 contest, a relegation system was introduced which would bar the lowest-scoring countries from participating in the following year's event.[1][4][10] At the running order draw, held in December 1992 at the National Concert Hall in Dublin and hosted by Pat Kenny and Linda Martin, the three new countries were represented as Countries A, B and C, corresponding with the countries that placed first, second and third in the qualifying competition respectively.[10][13] Entitled Kvalifikacija za Millstreet, the qualifying round took place on 3 April 1993 in Ljubljana, Slovenia.[1][10] Initially broadcasters in as many as fourteen countries registered an interest in competing in the event, however only seven countries eventually submitted entries, representing Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia.[10] Ultimately the entries from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia were chosen to progress to the contest proper in Millstreet;[1][4][10] as constituent republics of SFR Yugoslavia, representatives from all three countries had previously competed in the contest.[14]

The contest featured three artists who had previously participated in the contest: Tony Wegas represented Austria for a second consecutive year; Katri Helena made a second appearance for Finland, having previously competed in 1979; and Denmark's Tommy Seebach, having previously competed in 1979 as a solo artist and in 1981 alongside Debbie Cameron, competed in the 1993 contest as part of the Seebach Band.[15]

Participants of the Eurovision Song Contest 1993[15][16][17]
Country Broadcaster Artist Song Language Songwriter(s) Conductor
 Austria ORF Tony Wegas "Maria Magdalena" German
Christian Kolonovits
 Belgium BRTN Barbara "Iemand als jij" Dutch
  • Tobana
  • Marc Vliegen
 Bert Candries
 Bosnia and Herzegovina RTVBiH Fazla "Sva bol svijeta" Bosnian
Noel Kelehan[lower-alpha 2]
 Croatia HRT Put "Don't Ever Cry" Croatian, English
Andrej Baša
 Cyprus CyBC Zymboulakis and Van Beke "Mi stamatas" (Μη σταματάς) Greek
  • Aristos Moschovakis
  • Rodoula Papalambrianou
 George Theofanous
 Denmark DR Seebach Band "Under stjernerne på himlen" Danish
George Keller
 Finland YLE Katri Helena "Tule luo" Finnish
  • Matti Puurtinen
  • Jukka Saarinen
 Olli Ahvenlahti
 France France Télévision Patrick Fiori "Mama Corsica" French, Corsican François Valéry Christian Cravero
 Germany MDR[lower-alpha 3] Münchener Freiheit "Viel zu weit" German Stefan Zauner Norbert Daum
 Greece ERT Katerina Garbi "Ellada, hora tou fotos" (Ελλάδα, χώρα του φωτός) Greek Dimosthenis Stringlis Haris Andreadis
 Iceland RÚV Inga "Þá veistu svarið" Icelandic
  • Friðrik Sturluson
  • Jon Kjell Seljeseth
 Jon Kjell Seljeseth
 Ireland RTÉ Niamh Kavanagh "In Your Eyes" English Jimmy Walsh Noel Kelehan
 Israel IBA Lehakat Shiru "Shiru" (שירו) Hebrew, English
Amir Frohlich
 Italy RAI Enrico Ruggeri "Sole d'Europa" Italian Enrico Ruggeri Vittorio Cosma
 Luxembourg CLT Modern Times "Donne-moi une chance" French, Luxembourgish
  • Patrick Hippert
  • Jimmy Martin
 Francis Goya
 Malta PBS William Mangion "This Time" English William Mangion Joseph Sammut
 Netherlands NOS Ruth Jacott "Vrede" Dutch
Harry van Hoof
 Norway NRK Silje Vige "Alle mine tankar" Norwegian Bjørn Erik Vige Rolf Løvland
 Portugal RTP Anabela "A cidade até ser dia" Portuguese
Armindo Neves
 Slovenia RTVSLO 1X Band "Tih deževen dan" Slovene
  • Tomaž Kosec
  • Cole Moretti
 Jože Privšek
 Spain TVE Eva Santamaría "Hombres" Spanish Carlos Toro Eduardo Leiva
 Sweden SVT Arvingarna "Eloise" Swedish
Curt-Eric Holmquist
  Switzerland SRG SSR Annie Cotton "Moi, tout simplement" French
  • Christophe Duc
  • Jean-Jacques Egli
 Marc Sorrentino
 Turkey TRT Burak Aydos, Öztürk Baybora and Serter "Esmer Yarim" Turkish Burak Aydos No conductor
 United Kingdom BBC Sonia "Better the Devil You Know" English
  • Dean Collinson
  • Red
 Nigel Wright
Entires which failed to progress from Kvalifikacija za Millstreet[10][17]
Country Broadcaster Artist Song Language Songwriter(s)
 Estonia ETV Janika Sillamaa "Muretut meelt ja südametuld" Estonian
 Hungary MTV Andrea Szulák "Árva reggel" Hungarian
  • Emese Hatvani
  • György Jakab
  • László Pásztor
 Romania TVR Dida Drăgan "Nu pleca" Romanian
 Slovakia STV Elán "Amnestia na neveru" Slovak

Production and format

The Eurovision Song Contest 1993 was produced by the Irish public broadcaster Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ). Liam Miller served as executive producer, Kevin Linehan served as producer, Anita Notaro served as director, Alan Farquharson served as designer, and Noel Kelehan served as musical director, leading the RTÉ Concert Orchestra.[1][19][20][21] A separate musical director could be nominated by each country to lead the orchestra during their performance, with the host musical director also available to conduct for those countries which did not nominate their own conductor.[15]

Each participating broadcaster submitted one song, which was required to be no longer than three minutes in duration and performed in the language, or one of the languages, of the country which it represented.[22][23] A maximum of six performers were allowed on stage during each country's performance, and all participants were required to have reached the age of 16 in the year of the contest.[22][24] Each entry could utilise all or part of the live orchestra and could use instrumental-only backing tracks, however any backing tracks used could only include the sound of instruments featured on stage being mimed by the performers.[24][25]

The results of the 1993 contest were determined through the same scoring system as had first been introduced in 1975: each country awarded twelve points to its favourite entry, followed by ten points to its second favourite, and then awarded points in decreasing value from eight to one for the remaining songs which featured in the country's top ten, with countries unable to vote for their own entry.[26] The points awarded by each country were determined by an assembled jury of sixteen individuals, which was required to be split evenly between members of the public and music professionals, between men and women, and between those over and under 30 years of age. Each jury member voted in secret and awarded between one and ten votes to each participating song, excluding that from their own country and with no abstentions permitted. The votes of each member were collected following the country's performance and then tallied by the non-voting jury chairperson to determine the points to be awarded. In any cases where two or more songs in the top ten received the same number of votes, a show of hands by all jury members was used to determine the final placing.[27][28]

The 1993 contest was at the time the largest outside broadcast production ever undertaken by RTÉ, and the broadcaster was reported to have spent over £2,200,000 on producing the event.[29][30] In order to stage the event Millstreet and the Green Glens Arena underwent major infrastructure improvements, which were led by local groups and individuals.[5][29] The floor area within the arena had to be dug out in order to create additional height to facilitate the stage and equipment, extra phone lines had to be installed, and the town's railway line and station required an extension at an extra cost of over £1,000,000.[3][4][31]

The stage design for the Millstreet contest featured the largest stage yet constructed for the event, covering 2,500ft² (232m²) of translucent material which was illuminated from below by lighting strips. A mirror image of the triangular shaped stage was suspended from above, and a slanted background created a distorted perspective for the viewer. A hidden doorway featured in the centre of the stage, which was used by the presenter at the beginning of the show, and by the winning artist as they re-entered the arena following the broadcast.[4][30][32] The contest logo was designed by Conor Cassidy and was adapted from aspects of the coat of arms of County Cork.[30]

Contest overview
Niamh Kavanagh (pictured in 2010), the winning artist of the 1993 Eurovision Song Contest.

The contest took place on 15 May 1993 at 20:00 (IST) and lasted 3 hours and 1 minute.[1][15] The show was presented by the Irish journalist Fionnuala Sweeney.[1][33]

The contest was opened by an animated sequence designed by Gary Keenan and inspired by Celtic mythology, set to Irish traditional music by composers Ronan Johnston and Shea Fitzgerald and featuring uilleann pipes player Davy Spillane.[5][30][34] The interval act comprised performances by previous Eurovision winners Linda Martin, reprising her winning song from the previous year's contest "Why Me?", and Johnny Logan, performing the song "Voices (Are Calling)" with choirs from the Cork School of Music and local children of Millstreet.[34][35][36] The trophy awarded to the winners was crafted by Waterford Crystal and was presented by Linda Martin.[34][35]

The winner was Ireland represented by the song "In Your Eyes", written by Jimmy Walsh and performed by Niamh Kavanagh.[37] This marked Ireland's fifth contest win, putting them level with Luxembourg and France for the country with the most wins, and its second win in a row, matching the same feat previously achieved by Spain (1968 and 1969), Luxembourg (1972 and 1973) and Israel (1978 and 1979).[2][27] The United Kingdom finished in second place for the second year in a row, and for a record-extending fourteenth time overall.[27][38]

Results of the Eurovision Song Contest 1993[27][39]
R/O Country Artist Song Points Place
1  Italy Enrico Ruggeri "Sole d'Europa" 45 12
2  Turkey Burak Aydos, Öztürk Baybora and Serter "Esmer Yarim" 10 21
3  Germany Münchener Freiheit "Viel zu weit" 18 18
4   Switzerland Annie Cotton "Moi, tout simplement" 148 3
5  Denmark Seebach Band "Under stjernerne på himlen" 9 22
6  Greece Katerina Garbi "Ellada, hora tou fotos" 64 9
7  Belgium Barbara "Iemand als jij" 3 25
8  Malta William Mangion "This Time" 69 8
9  Iceland Inga "Þá veistu svarið" 42 13
10  Austria Tony Wegas "Maria Magdalena" 32 14
11  Portugal Anabela "A cidade até ser dia" 60 10
12  France Patrick Fiori "Mama Corsica" 121 4
13  Sweden Arvingarna "Eloise" 89 7
14  Ireland Niamh Kavanagh "In Your Eyes" 187 1
15  Luxembourg Modern Times "Donne-moi une chance" 11 20
16  Slovenia 1X Band "Tih deževen dan" 9 22
17  Finland Katri Helena "Tule luo" 20 17
18  Bosnia and Herzegovina Fazla "Sva bol svijeta" 27 16
19  United Kingdom Sonia "Better the Devil You Know" 164 2
20  Netherlands Ruth Jacott "Vrede" 92 6
21  Croatia Put "Don't Ever Cry" 31 15
22  Spain Eva Santamaría "Hombres" 58 11
23  Cyprus Zymboulakis and Van Beke "Mi stamatas" 17 19
24  Israel Lehakat Shiru "Shiru" 4 24
25  Norway Silje Vige "Alle mine tankar" 120 5

Spokespersons

Each country nominated a spokesperson, connected to the contest venue via telephone lines and responsible for announcing, in English or French, the votes for their respective country.[22][40] Known spokespersons at the 1993 contest are listed below.

Detailed voting results

Jury voting was used to determine the points awarded by all countries.[27] The announcement of the results from each country was conducted in the order in which they performed, with the spokespersons announcing their country's points in English or French in ascending order. However, due to a technical problem with the telephone connection, Malta, which had been scheduled to be the eighth country to vote, was passed over and instead voted last.[27][34] The detailed breakdown of the points awarded by each country is listed in the tables below.

Detailed voting results of the Eurovision Song Contest 1993[27][45][46]
Total score
Italy
Turkey
Germany
Switzerland
Denmark
Greece
Belgium
Iceland
Austria
Portugal
France
Sweden
Ireland
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Finland
Bosnia and Herzegovina
United Kingdom
Netherlands
Croatia
Spain
Cyprus
Israel
Norway
Malta
Contestants
 Italy 451105108227
Turkey 101216
Germany 1882341
Switzerland 1481012107846112671284108236435
Denmark 9135
Greece 64222765812776
Belgium 33
Malta 6975475542242464413
Iceland 42441715275222
Austria 3241336123
Portugal 601122582421121235
France 1217412387128106414381086
Sweden 89887107104567710
Ireland 1871215126623861012712381210610751212
Luxembourg 11110
Slovenia 94311
Finland 2038522
Bosnia and Herzegovina 273121434
United Kingdom 16418658121212761088105341054128
Netherlands 9266776351271037103
Croatia 313458164
Spain 585652210675118
Cyprus 172105
Israel 431
Norway 1201010101261085131276128

12 points

The below table summarises how the maximum 12 points were awarded from one country to another. The winning country is shown in bold. Ireland received the maximum score of 12 points from seven of the voting countries, with the United Kingdom receiving four sets of 12 points, Norway and Switzerland receiving three sets of maximum scores each, France and Portugal two sets each, and Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece and the Netherlands each receiving one maximum score.[45][46]

Distribution of 12 points awarded at the Eurovision Song Contest 1993[45][46]
N. Contestant Nation(s) giving 12 points
7  Ireland Italy,  Malta,  Norway,  Slovenia,  Sweden,   Switzerland,  United Kingdom
4  United Kingdom Austria,  Belgium,  Iceland,  Israel
3  Norway Croatia,  Finland,  Greece
  Switzerland France,  Germany,  Luxembourg
2  France Denmark,  Portugal
 Portugal Netherlands,  Spain
1  Austria Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Bosnia and Herzegovina Turkey
 Greece Cyprus
 Netherlands Ireland

Broadcasts

Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers.[24] Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below.

Broadcasters and commentators in participating countries
Country Broadcaster Channel(s) Commentator(s) Ref(s)
 Austria ORF ORF 1 Ernst Grissemann [47][48]
 Belgium BRTN TV1 André Vermeulen [49][50]
RTBF RTBF1, Télé 21 [51]
 Bosnia and Herzegovina RTVBiH
 Croatia HRT HTV 1 Aleksandar Kostadinov [52][53]
 Cyprus CyBC Evi Papamichail [54]
 Denmark DR DR TV Jørgen de Mylius [55]
DR P3 Jens Michael Nielsen
 Finland YLE TV1 Erkki Pohjanheimo and Kirsi-Maria Niemi [56][57]
Radiomafia Sanna Kojo and Outi Popp [56]
Riksradion Johan Finne, Paul Olin and Wille Wilenius
 France France Télévision France 2 Patrice Laffont [58]
 Germany ARD Erstes Deutsches Fernsehen Jan Hofer [47][59]
 Greece ERT ET1 Dafni Bokota [60][61]
 Iceland RÚV Sjónvarpið Jakob Frímann Magnússon [62]
 Ireland RTÉ RTÉ 1 Pat Kenny [63][64]
RTÉ Radio 1 Larry Gogan [65]
 Israel IBA Israeli Television [66]
 Italy RAI RAI Uno[lower-alpha 4] Ettore Andenna [67][68]
 Luxembourg CLT
 Malta PBS TVM [69]
 Netherlands NOS Nederland 3 Willem van Beusekom [49][51]
 Norway NRK NRK Fjernsynet, NRK P2 Leif Erik Forberg [70][71]
 Portugal RTP RTP Canal 1, RTP Internacional[lower-alpha 5] [58][72]
 Slovenia RTVSLO SLO 1, Val 202 [73]
 Spain TVE La Primera, TVE Internacional José Luis Uribarri [74][75]
 Sweden SVT TV2 Jan Jingryd [44][70]
SR SR P3 Claes-Johan Larsson and Susan Seidemar [44]
  Switzerland SRG SSR SF DRS Bernard Thurnheer [47]
TSR Chaîne nationale Jean-Marc Richard [58]
TSI Canale nazionale Emanuela Gaggini [76]
 Turkey TRT
 United Kingdom BBC BBC1 Terry Wogan [15][77]
BBC Radio 2 Ken Bruce [15][78]
Broadcasters and commentators in non-participating countries
Country Broadcaster Channel(s) Commentator(s) Ref(s)
 Australia SBS SBS TV[lower-alpha 6] [79]
 Estonia ETV [57]
 Hungary MTV MTV1 István Vágó [80]
 Poland TVP TVP1 Artur Orzech and Maria Szabłowska [81][82]
 Russia RTR RTR[lower-alpha 7] [83]
 Slovakia STV STV2[lower-alpha 8] [84]

Notes and references

Footnotes
  1. Yugoslavia's participants had represented the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between 1961 and 1991 and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992.[11]
  2. The nominated conductor for Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sinan Alimanović, was unable to safely commute to the flight to Ireland due to the ongoing Bosnian War; the contest's musical director, Noel Kelehan, subsequently led the orchestra during the Bosnian entry.[15]
  3. On behalf of the German public broadcasting consortium ARD[18]
  4. Deferred broadcast at 23:05 CEST (21:05 UTC)[58][67]
  5. Deferred broadcast on RTP Internacional at 21:45 WEST (20:45 UTC)[58]
  6. Deferred broadcast on 16 May at 20:30 AEST (10:30 UTC)[79]
  7. Deferred broadcast at 23:30 MSD (19:30 UTC) [57][83]
  8. Deferred broadcast on 16 May at 21:35 CEST (20:35 UTC)[84]

References
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  3. Roxburgh, Gordon (2020). Songs for Europe: The United Kingdom at the Eurovision Song Contest. Vol. Four: The 1990s. Prestatyn, United Kingdom: Telos Publishing. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-84583-163-9.
  4. O'Connor, John Kennedy (2010). The Eurovision Song Contest: The Official History (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Carlton Books. pp. 132–145. ISBN 978-1-84732-521-1.
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  7. Fitzpatrick, Richard (14 May 2013). "The Eurovision in Millstreet: Looking back 20 years on". Irish Examiner. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
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  9. Roxburgh, Gordon (2020). Songs for Europe: The United Kingdom at the Eurovision Song Contest. Vol. Four: The 1990s. Prestatyn, United Kingdom: Telos Publishing. pp. 135–137. ISBN 978-1-84583-163-9.
  10. Roxburgh, Gordon (2020). Songs for Europe: The United Kingdom at the Eurovision Song Contest. Vol. Four: The 1990s. Prestatyn, United Kingdom: Telos Publishing. pp. 132–135. ISBN 978-1-84583-163-9.
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  19. Roxburgh, Gordon (2020). Songs for Europe: The United Kingdom at the Eurovision Song Contest. Vol. Four: The 1990s. Prestatyn, United Kingdom: Telos Publishing. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-84583-163-9.
  20. O'Connor, John Kennedy (2010). The Eurovision Song Contest: The Official History (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Carlton Books. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-84732-521-1.
  21. Harding, Peter (May 1993). Eurovision Song Contest production team (1993) (Photograph). Green Glens Arena, Millstreet, Ireland. Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023 – via RTÉ Libraries and Archives.
  22. "How it works – Eurovision Song Contest". European Broadcasting Union. 18 May 2019. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
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  25. Escudero, Victor M. (18 April 2020). "#EurovisionAgain travels back to Dublin 1997". European Broadcasting Union. Archived from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 24 October 2023. The orchestra also saw their days numbered as, from 1997, full backing tracks were allowed without restriction, meaning that the songs could be accompanied by pre-recorded music instead of the live orchestra.
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