Telugu grammar
Telugu is an agglutinative language with person, tense, case and number being inflected on the end of nouns and verbs. It's word order is usually subject-object-verb, with the direct object following the indirect object. The grammatical function of the words are marked by suffixes that indicate case and postpositions that follow the oblique stem. It is also head-final and a pro-drop language.
The first treatise on Telugu grammar (Telugu: వ్యాకరణం vyākaraṇam), the Andhra Sabda Chintamani (Telugu: ఆంధ్ర శబ్ద చింతామణి Āndhra śabda cintāmaṇi) was written in Sanskrit by Nannayya, who is considered the first poet (ādikavi) and grammarian of the Telugu language, in the 11th century CE.
In the 19th century, Paravastu Chinnaya Suri wrote a simplified work on Telugu grammar called Bāla Vyākaraṇam (lit. Children's grammar), borrowing concepts and ideas from Nannayya, in Telugu.[1]
According to Nannayya, language without 'Niyama' or the language which does not adhere to Vyākaranam is called Grāmya (lit of the village) or Apabhraṃśa, is unfit for literary usage. All literary texts in Telugu follow the Vyākaraṇam.[1]
Nouns
Telugu is more inflected than other literary Dravidian languages. Telugu nouns are inflected for number (singular, plural), gender (masculine and non-masculine) and grammatical case (nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, and vocative).[2]
Gender
Telugu has three genders:
- masculine (purusha liṅgamu),
- feminine (strī liṅgamu),
- neuter (napunsaka liṅgamu).
In Telugu the occurrence of the suffix (–ḍu) almost always encodes masculine gender. For example:
- tammuḍu (younger brother),
- mukhyuḍu (important man),
- Rāmuḍu (Rāma),
- nāyakuḍu (leader).
However, there are nouns that do not end in (-ḍu) that belong to the masculine class.For example:
- annayya (elder brother),
- māmayya (uncle).
Most of the words ending in -ḍu are borrowings from Sanskrit words ending in -a, and therefore the feminine forms of these words are equivalent to the Sanskrit words.
Masculine | Sanskrit original | Feminine |
---|---|---|
nartakuḍu | nartaka | nartaki |
vācakuḍu | vācaka | vācaki |
premikuḍu | premika | preyasi |
Sometimes, a word ending in -ḍu is feminized by adding the suffix -ālu to the root. The -a ending of the root becomes -ur. This phenomenon is known as the rugāgama sandhi.
Masculine | Sanskrit original | Feminine |
---|---|---|
nartakuḍu | nartaka | nartakurālu |
priyuḍu | priya | priyurālu |
bhaktuḍu | bhakta | bhakturālu |
Neuter-gendered words usually contain the suffix -amu. This suffix descends from the Old Telugu suffix -ambu and is increasingly losing the final -u to become -aṁ. These neuter words are often borrowed from Sanskrit neuter-gendered words ending in -a or -u. The final -a usually becomes -amu, and the final -u becomes -uvu.
Sanskrit original | Telugu |
---|---|
ākāśam | ākāśamu |
madhu | madhuvu |
However, Telugu sometimes uses the same forms for singular feminine and neuter genders – the third person pronoun (అది /ad̪i/) is used to refer to animals and objects.[3]
Number (vachanam)
Anything with quantity one is singular (ekavachanam). Anything more than one in number is called plural (bahuvachanam), as in English. Formation of the plural stem, however, is relatively complicated, although the ending is centered on variants -lu or -ḷu.
In Telugu the plural is also used to as an honorific. Some nouns are always plural and some are always singular. For example, water (neellu) is always plural.
God (bhagavantudu), sun (suryudu), earth (bhūmi), and moon (chandrudu) are always singular form.
Plural formation
Rule | Telugu | English | Notes | Exceptions | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | ||||
0 | āvu | āvulu | cow | No modification of the stem, and variant -lu is used. |
|
1 | cōṭu | cōṭḷu | crore | Vowels in -ṭ[i/u], -ṇṭ[i/u], or -ṇḍ[i/u] in the singular is deleted, and variant -ḷu is used. Forms in -ṇḍḷu varies with -ḷḷu, used in western and eastern dialects, respectively. | |
paṇḍu | paṇḍḷu paḷḷu |
fruit | |||
2 | kālu | kāḷḷu | leg | -ḍ[i/u], -l[i/u], or -r[i/u] (-li or -ri are limited to nouns with at least 3 syllables) in the singular are replaced by -ḷḷu. Some instances of -ḷḷu have alternative form -rlu. |
|
pēru | pēḷḷu pērlu |
name |
| ||
3 | guḍḍu | guḍḷu | egg | -ṭṭ[i/u] and -ḍḍ[i/u] in the singular change into -ṭ- and -ḍ- before variant -ḷu. | |
4 | illu | iṇḍḷu iḷḷu |
house | -llu and -nnu in the singular are replaced by -ṇḍḷu or -ḷḷu. |
|
5 | pustakam | pustakālu | book | -[a/ā]m and -em in the singular are replaced by -ā- and -ē- before variant -lu. | |
6 | abbāy(i) | abbāy(i)lu | son, boy | The vowel in -yi- is sometimes deleted, and variant -lu is used. | |
7 | cēyi ceyyi |
cētulu | hand | -(y)yi in the singular is replaced by -tulu, and the vowel preceding -yyi becomes long after pluralization (ceyyi → cētulu). |
|
8 | pilli | pillulu | cat | The vowel -i- is replaced by -u-, and the variant -lu is used. In native nouns with more than three syllables, all instances of -i- is ablauted to -u-. |
|
maniṣi | manuṣulu | person |
Case (విభక్తి vibhakti)
A Grammar of Modern Telugu by Krishnamurti and Gwynn (1985), which focuses on a grammatical description of modern spoken Telugu rather than classical literary Telugu, presents a simple analysis of grammatical case:
Only the nominative, genitive, accusative, and dative cases are regularly used, and the locative case is formed using the suffixes -lō, -lōpala which were originally placed in the Genitive case by traditional grammarians to fit into the Sanskrit case scheme. The instrumental case suffix is -tō; the colloquial suffixes for ablative case are -valla and -kaṇṭe/-kannā. The dative suffixes in classical are completely replaced by -kōsam.
The accusative case suffix is usually simply -ni/-nu, the former used after final syllables containing -i- while the later elsewhere.
In neuter nouns, the nominative singular ending -am changes before the accusative and dative case suffixes, such that the combined forms of these endings are neuter accusative singular -ānni and neuter dative singular -āniki (Krishnamurti and Gwynn, pp. 85-97).
Case | Suffix | Example |
---|---|---|
Dative | -ki/ku | అతను బడికి వెళ్తాడు
Atanu baḍiki veḷtāḍu He goes to school |
Accusative | -ni/nu | అతను అబ్బాయిని చూస్తాడు
Atanu abbāyini cūstāḍu He sees the boy |
Locative | -lo | అతను గదిలో ఉన్నాడు
Atanu gadilo unnaaḍu He is in the room |
Instrumental | -tō | అతను కుక్కతో ఆడుకుంటాడు
Atanu kukkatō āḍukuṇṭāḍu He plays with the dog |
Oblique stem formation
Formation of the oblique stem, also usually but not always the same as the genitive (by default homophonous unless noted), is relatively complicated just like pluralization.
Class | Telugu | English | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | Oblique | |||
A | ceṭṭu | ceṭṭu- | tree | No change. |
B | kālu | kāli- | leg | Human nouns ending in -ḍu, -lu, -nu, or -ru (including a few non-human nouns ending in -lu or -ru) replace -u with -i. |
C | gūḍu | gūṭi- | tree | Non-human nouns ending in -ḍ[i/u], -l[i/u], -r[i/u] replace the endings with -ṭi. |
D | illu | iṇṭi- | house | Only limited to nouns cannu "breast", illu "house", kannu "eye", oḷḷu "body", pannu "teeth", and villu "bow". |
kannu | kaṇṭi- | eye | ||
E | cēyi ceyyi |
cēti- | hand | Only limited to nouns cēyi "hand", gōyi "pit", nēyi "ghee", nūyi "well", rāyi "stone", gorru "hearth", and Parru, all of them except the last three show variation between -V̄yi vs. -Vyyi. |
gorru | gorti | hearth | ||
F | kalam | kalāni- | pen | All nouns ending in -am replace the ending with -āni, although the genitive is homophonous with nominative instead of the oblique stem. |
Sentence Structure
Telugu word order tends to be subject–object–verb. It is head-final - the head follows it's complements. Since Telugu is a pro-drop language, the subject can be omitted as the verb already marks person and number.
రాముడు
Rāmuḍu
Ram
SUBJECT
బడికి
baḍiki
to school
OBJECT
వెళ్తాడు.
veḷtāḍu
goes.
VERB
Ram goes to school.
అతను
Atanu
He
SUBJECT
కుక్కను
kukkanu
the dog
OBJECT
చూస్తాడు
cūstāḍu
sees
VERB
He sees the dog
Punctuation
Telugu uses single and double vertical bars to indicate a comma and a full stop. However modern Telugu uses punctuation marks which are borrowed from English.[6]
Sandhi or joining
Sandhi is the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words.
Telugu sandhis can be divided into native ones and those derived from Sanskrit ones.
Sanskrit Sandhis
These sandhis usually take place when the two words undergoing Sandhi are words borrowed from Sanskrit.
Savarṇadīrghasandhi (Vowel lengthening)
The savarṇadīrgha sandhi, from Sanskrit savarṇa 'same sound' and dīrgha 'long', this sandhi takes place when the first word ends in the same vowel that the second word starts with. The two vowels join to form one long vowel.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
deva | ālayamu | dēvālayamu |
pārvati | īśvaruḍu | pārvatīśvaruḍu |
aṇu | utpatti | aṇūtpatti |
Guṇasandhi (Vowel raising)
The guṇasandhi takes place when a word final -a is followed by either -i, -u or -r̥. The sandhi yields -ē, -ō and -ar respectively. -ē, -ō and -ar are collectively called the guṇas, hence the name.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
mahā | indra | mahēndra |
dhana | utpatti | dhanōtpatti |
dēva | r̥ṣi | dēvarṣi |
Vr̥ddhisandhi (Diphthongization)
The vr̥ddhisandhi, from Sanskrit vr̥ddhi-, 'growth', takes place when a word final -a is followed by -ē or -ai, -ō or -au, and -ar or -ār, and yields -ai, -au and -ār respectively. -ai, -au and -ār are collectively called the vr̥ddhis, hence the name.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
vasudha | ēka | vasudhaika |
mahā | aikyata | mahaikyata |
vīra | ōjassu | vīraujassu |
divya | auṣadhamu | divyauṣadhamu |
Yaṇādēśasandhi (Glide insertion)
The yaṇādēśasandhi takes place when word final -i, -u or -r̥ is followed by a non-similar vowel. The sandhi yields either -y-, -v- or -r- respectively. These are known as the yaṇās.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
ati | āśa | atyāśa |
su | āgatamu | svāgatamu |
pitr̥ | ājña | pitrājña |
Native sandhis
These sandhis usually occur when one or both of the words is a native Telugu word, or is a Sanskrit borrowing that is treated as such (ex. iṣṭamu).
Akārasandhi (Elision of a)
This sandhi occurs when a word final -a is followed by any vowel. The word final -a is removed, and the following vowel takes its place.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
iṅkā | ēṇṭi | iṅkēṇṭi |
puṭṭina | illu | puṭṭinillu |
amma | aṇṭē | ammaṇṭē |
teliyaka | uṇḍenu | teliyakuṇḍenu |
Ikārasandhi
This sandhi occurs when a word final -i is followed by any vowel. The word final -i is removed, and the following vowel takes its place.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
mari | eppuḍu | mareppuḍu |
vāḍi | illu | vāḍillu |
ēmi | aṇṭivi | ēmaṇṭivi |
ēmi | a(y)inadi | ēma(y)inadi |
ēmi | undi | ēmundi |
Ukārasandhi
This sandhi occurs when a word final -u is followed by any vowel. The word final -u is removed, and the following vowel takes its place.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
ceppu | iṅkā | ceppiṅkā |
vāḍu | evaḍu | vāḍevaḍu |
nīḷlu | unnāyā | nīḷlunnāyā |
vāḍu | annāḍu | vāḍannāḍu |
Trikasandhi
One of the most complicated of the sandhis, the trikasandhi is of two forms:
- When a final -ā -ī or -ē is followed by a non-clustered consonant, the vowel is shortened, and the unclustered consonant is geminated.
- When the word mūḍu (three) is followed by a consonant, the word-final -ḍu is eliminated. This triggers the first rule of the trikasandhi, and the now-word-final -ū is shortened, and the following consonant is geminated. When the consonant is l-, sometimes it is geminated to -ḷḷ- instead.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
ī | kālamu | ikkālamu |
ē | cōṭu | eccōṭu |
ā | bhaṅgi | abbaṅgi |
mūḍu | lōkamulu | mullōkamulu |
mūḍu | kōṭi | mukkōṭi |
Āmrēḍitasandhi
This sandhi deals with repeated words, i.e., pairs of same words. This sandhi forms some of the most used irregular-looking words in the language. It has three rules:
- When a vowel-initial word is repeated, the final vowel of the first word is eliminated.
- Word final forms of ka (ka, ki, ku, ke, etc.) of the first word are eliminated and the first rule is applied.
- The andādi words (anduku, iggulu, tumuru, tuniyalu, etc.) when compounded lead to irregular forms.
Word | Result |
---|---|
aura | auraura |
endun | endendun |
appaṭiki | appaṭappaṭiki |
ūran | ūrūran |
ceduru | cellāceduru |
iggulu | iṟṟiggulu |
Dviruktaṭakārasandhi
Sometimes regarded as a form of the āmrēḍitasandhi, the dviruktaṭakārasandhi occurs when kaḍādi (kaḍa, naḍuma, madhyāhnamu, bayalu, etc.) words are compounded. A dviruktaṭakāra, a geminated -ṭṭ- forms from this sandhi, hence the name.
Initial word | Final word | Result |
---|---|---|
madhyāhnamu | madhyāhnamu | miṭṭamadhyāhnamu |
pagalu | pagalu | paṭṭapagalu |
naḍuma | iṇṭlō | naṭṭiṇṭlō |
Gasaḍadavādēśasandhi
- Trika Sandhi.
- Dugagama Sandhi.
- Saraladesha Sandhi
- Gasadadavadesha Sandhi.
- Rugagama Sandhi.
- Yadagama Sandhi.
- Prathametara Vibhakti Sandhi.
- Uchadadi sandhi.
Samasam or nominal compounds
Samasam or samasa occurs with various structures, but morphologically speaking they are essentially the same: each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection.
Some of the Telugu samasams are:
- Tatpuruṣa Samasam.
- Prathama tatpurusha samasam
- Dvitiya tatpurusha samasam
- Trutiya tatpurusha samasam
- Chaturthi tatpurusha samasam
- Panchami tatpurusha samasam
- Shashti tatpurusha samasam
- Saptami tatpurusha samasam
- Nai tatpurusha samasam
- Karmadhāraya Samasam.
- Viśeshana purwapada karmadharaya samasam
- Viśeshana uttarapada karmadharaya samasam
- Viśeshana ubhayapada karmadharaya samasam
- Upamana purvapada karmadharaya samasam
- Upamana uttarapada karmadharaya samasam
- Avadharana purvapada karmadharaya samasam
- Sambhavana purvapada karmadharaya samasam
- Dvigu Samasam.
- Dvandva Samasam.
- Bahuvrīhi Samasam.
- Amredita Samasam.
- Avyayībhāva Samasam
Alankaram or ornamentation
Telugu Alankaram is a figure of speech which means ornaments or embellishments which are used to enhance the beauty of the poems. There are two types of Alankarams, 'Shabdalankaram' which primarily focuses on Sound and 'Arthalamkaram' which focuses on meaning. These two alankarams are further broken down in to different categories.[7] shabdalankaras are 6 types where as there are nearly 30 to 40 types in ardhalankaras.
- Shabdalankaram
- Vruttyanuprasa
- Chekanuprasa
- Latanuprasa
- antyanuprasa
- Yamakam
- Mukta pada grastam
- Arthalamkaram
- Upamanaalankaram
- Utprekshaalankaram
- Rupakaalankaram
- Shleshalankaram
- Arthantaranyaasam
- Atishayokti
- Drushtantam
- Swabhavokti
- vyajastu
- virodhi
- vishamamu
- parikaramu
- branti madala
- kramalam
Chandassu or Telugu prosody
Metrical poetry in Telugu is called 'Chandassu' or 'Chandas'. ya-maa-taa-raa-ja-bhaa-na-sa-la-gam is called the chandassu chakram. Utpalamala, Champakamala, Mattebha vikreeditham, Sardoola Vikreeditham, Kanda, Aata veladi, Theta geethi, Sragdhara, Bhujangaprayata, etc. are some metrics used in Telugu poetry.
Prakruti and Vikruti
Telugu has many Tatsama words. They are called Prakruti, which are equivalent to Sanskrit words. The equivalent colloquial words are called Vikruti, which means distorted. However, Prakruti is only used as a medium of instruction in educational institutions, offices etc.
For example:
Prakruti | Vikruti |
---|---|
అగ్ని Agni (fire) | అగ్గి Aggi |
భోజనం Bhojanam (food) | బోనం Bonam |
విద్య Vidya (education) | విద్దె Vidhe, విద్దియ Vidhiya |
రాక్షసి Raakshasi (evil) | రక్కసి Rakkasi |
శూన్య Shoonya (zero) | సున్న Sunna |
దృష్టి Drishti (sight) | దిష్టి Dishti |
కనిష్టం Kanishtam (minimum) | కనీసం Kaneesam |
అగరవర్తి Agaravarti (inscent, agara+varthi, scent wounded) | అగరవత్తి Agaravatti |
విభూతి Vibhoothi (ash) | విభూధి Vibhudhi |
చనక Chanaka (chick pea, Chanakya is derived from the same root) | శనగ śanaga |
కవచ Kavacha (protective shell) | గవచ Gavacha, గవ్వ Gavva |
భిక్షం Bhiksham (alms) | బిచ్చం Bicham |
ద్వితీయ Dvitiya (second) | విదియ Vidiya |
తృతీయ Trutiya (third) | తదియ Thadhiya |
జాగ్రత Jaagrata (alert) | జాగ్రత్త Jaagratta |
వామతి Vamati (vomit) | వాంతి Vanthi |
స్వంత Swantha (own) | సొంత Sonta |
అటవి Atavi (forest) | అడవి Adavi |
త్వర Twara (fast) | తొరగా Toraga |
రక్తము Rakthamu (blood) | రగతము Ragathamu |
Verbs
Although the morphological (grammatical) structure of Telugu verbs is quite evidently complex and complicated, the basic conjugation of subject person and number endings in modern spoken Telugu is in fact rather straightforward:
Past tense
Past tense | Past tense negative | |
---|---|---|
1st person singular | నేను వెళ్ళాను Nēnu veḷḷānu I went | నేను వెళ్ళలేదు Nēnu veḷḷalēdu I didn't go |
2nd person singular | నువ్వు వెళ్ళావు Nuvvu veḷḷāvu You went | నువ్వు వెళ్ళలేదు Nuvvu veḷḷalēdu You didn't go |
3rd person singular masculine | అతను వెళ్ళాడు Atanu veḷḷāḍu He went | అతను వెళ్ళలేదు Atanu veḷḷalēdu He didn't go |
3rd person singular feminine/neuter | ఆమె వెళ్ళింది Āme veḷḷindi She went | ఆమె వెళ్ళలేదు Āme veḷḷalēdu She didn't go |
1st person plural | మేము వెళ్ళాము Mēmu veḷḷāmu We went | మేము వెళ్ళలేదు Mēmu veḷḷalēdu We didn't go |
2nd person plural | మీరు వెళ్ళారు Mīru veḷḷāru You (plural) went | మీరు వెళ్ళలేదు Mīru veḷḷalēdu You (plural) didn't go |
3rd person plural masculine/feminine | వారు వెళ్ళారు Vāru veḷḷāru They (masculine/feminine) went | వారు వెళ్ళలేదు Vāru veḷḷalēdu They (masc) didn't go |
3rd person plural neuter | అవి వెళ్లాయి Avi veḷlāyi They (neuter) went | అవి వెళ్ళలేదు Avi veḷḷalēdu They (neuter) didn't go |
Present tense
Present tense | Present tense negative | |
---|---|---|
1st person singular | నేను వెళ్తున్నాను Nēnu veḷtunnānu I am going | నేను వెళ్లట్లేదు Nēnu veḷlaṭlēdu I am not going |
2nd person singular | నువ్వు వెళ్తున్నావు Nuvvu veḷtunnāvu You are going | నువ్వు వెళ్లట్లేదు Nuvvu veḷlaṭlēdu You aren't going |
3rd person singular masculine | అతను వెళ్ళుతున్నాడు Atanu veḷḷutunnāḍu He is going | ఆటను వెళ్లట్లేదు Āṭanu veḷlaṭlēdu He isn't going |
3rd person singular feminine/neuter | ఆమె వెళ్తోంది Āme veḷtōndi She is going | ఆమె వెళ్లట్లేదు Āme veḷlaṭlēdu She isn't going |
1st person plural | మనము వెళ్తున్నాము Memu veḷtunnāmu We are going | మేము వెళ్లట్లేదు Mēmu veḷlaṭlēdu We aren't going |
2nd person plural | మీరు వెళ్తున్నారు Mīru veḷtunnāru You (plural) are going | మీరు వెళ్లట్లేదు Mīru veḷlaṭlēdu You (plural) aren't going |
3rd person plural masculine/feminine | వాళ్ళు వెళ్తున్నారు Vāru veḷtunnāru They (masculine/feminine) are going | వారు వెళ్లట్లేదు Vāru veḷlaṭlēdu They (masculine/feminine) aren't going |
3rd person plural neuter | అవి వెళ్తున్నాయి Avi veḷtunnāyi They (neuter) are going | అవి వెళ్లట్లేదు Avi veḷlaṭlēdu They (neuter) aren't going |
Future tense
Future tense | Future tense negative | |
---|---|---|
1st person singular | నేను వెళ్ళను Nēnu veḷtānu I will go | నేను వెళ్ళను Nēnu veḷḷanu I won't go |
2nd person singular | నువ్వు వెళ్తావు Nuvvu veḷtāvu You will go | నువ్వు వెళ్లవు Nuvvu veḷlavu You won't go |
3rd person singular masculine | అతను వెళ్తాడు Atanu veḷtāḍu He will go | అతను వెళ్ళడు Atanu veḷḷaḍu He won't go |
3rd person singular feminine/neuter | ఆమె వెళ్తుంది Āme veḷtundi She will go | ఆమె వెళ్ళదు Āme veḷḷadu She won't go |
1st person plural | మనం వెళ్తాము Memu veḷtāmu We will go | మేము వెళ్ళము Mēmu veḷḷamu We won't go |
2nd person plural | మీరు వెళ్తారు Mīru veḷtāru You (plural) will go | మీరు వెళ్ళరు Mīru veḷḷaru You (plural) won't go |
3rd person plural masculine/feminine | వారు వెళ్తారు Vāru veḷtāru They (masculine/feminine) will go | వారు వెళ్ళరు Vāru veḷḷaru They (masculine/feminine) won't go |
3rd person plural neuter | అవి వెళ్తాయి Avi veḷtāyi They (neuter) will go | అవి వెళ్ళదు Adi veḷḷadu They (neuter) won't go |
See also
References
- Gopavaram, Padmapriya; Subrahmanyam, Korada (2011). "1". A Comparative Study Of Andhrasabdachintamani And Balavyakaranam. Hyderabad: University of Hyderabad.
- Charles Philip Brown (1857). A grammar of the Telugu language (2 ed.). Christian Knowledge Society's Press.
- Charles Philip Brown (1857). A grammar of the Telugu language (2 ed.). Christian Knowledge Society's Press. p. 39.
- Krishnamurti & Gwynn 1985, pp. 51–56
- Krishnamurti & Gwynn 1985, pp. 77–79
- A Short Outline of Telugu Phonetics.
- Gopavaram, Padmapriya; Subrahmanyam, Korada (2011). A Comparative Study Of Andhrasabdachintamani And Balavyakaranam. Hyderabad: University of Hyderabad.
- Krishnamurti, Bh.; Gwynn, J.P.L. (1985). A Grammar of Modern Telugu (PDF). Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 138.