Alpha-1 antitrypsin

A1AT is a 52-kDa serpin and, in medicine, it is considered the most prominent serpin; the terms α1-antitrypsin and protease inhibitor (P_i) are often used interchangeably.

Most serpins inactivate enzymes by binding to them covalently. These enzymes are released locally in relatively low concentrations where they are immediately cleared by proteins such as A1AT. In the acute phase reaction, a further elevation is required to "limit" the damage caused by activated neutrophil granulocytes and their enzyme elastase, which breaks down the connective tissue fiber elastin.

Besides limiting elastase activity to limit tissue degradation, A1PI also acts to induce locomotion of lymphocytes through tissue including immature T cells through the thymus where immature T cells mature to become immunocompetent T cells that are released into tissue to elevate immune responsiveness.[10]

Like all serine protease inhibitors, A1AT has a characteristic secondary structure of beta sheets and alpha helices. Mutations in these areas can lead to non-functional proteins that can polymerise and accumulate in the liver (infantile hepatic cirrhosis).

Alpha-1 antitrypsin (white) with highlighted 'reactive centre loop' (blue) and A-sheet (light blue). (PDB: 1QLP)

Disorders of this protein include alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, an autosomal co-dominant hereditary disorder in which a deficiency of alpha-1 antitrypsin leads to a chronic uninhibited tissue breakdown. This causes the degradation especially of lung tissue and eventually leads to characteristic manifestations of pulmonary emphysema.[11] Evidence has shown[12] that cigarette smoke can result in oxidation of methionine 358 of α₁-antitrypsin (382 in the pre-processed form containing the 24 amino acid signal peptide), a residue essential for binding elastase; this is thought to be one of the primary mechanisms by which cigarette smoking (or second-hand smoke) can lead to emphysema. Because A1AT is expressed in the liver, certain mutations in the gene encoding the protein can cause misfolding and impaired secretion, which can lead to liver cirrhosis.

An extremely rare form of P_i, termed P_iPittsburgh, functions as an antithrombin (a related serpin), due to a mutation (Met358Arg). One person with this mutation has been reported to have died of a bleeding diathesis.[13]

A liver biopsy will show abundant PAS-positive globules within periportal hepatocytes.

Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) have been found to make autoantibodies toward the carbamylated form of A1AT in the synovial fluid. This suggests that A1AT may play an anti-inflammatory or tissue-protecting role outside the lungs. These antibodies are associated with a more severe disease course, can be observed years before disease onset, and may predict the development of RA in arthralgia patients. Consequently, carbamylated A1AT is currently being developed as an antigenic biomarker for RA.[14]

The protein was initially named "antitrypsin" because of its ability to bind and irreversibly inactivate the enzyme trypsin in vitro covalently. Trypsin, a type of peptidase, is a digestive enzyme active in the duodenum and elsewhere.

The term alpha-1 refers to the protein's behavior on protein electrophoresis. On electrophoresis, the protein component of the blood is separated by electric current. There are several clusters, the first being albumin, the second being the alpha, the third beta and the fourth gamma (immunoglobulins). The non-albumin proteins are referred to as globulins.

The alpha region can be further divided into two sub-regions, termed "1" and "2". Alpha-1 antitrypsin is the main protein of the alpha-globulin 1 region.

Another name used is alpha-1 proteinase inhibitor (α₁-PI).

The gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 14 (14q32.1).

Over 100 different variants of α₁-antitrypsin have been described in various populations. North-Western Europeans are most at risk for carrying one of the most common mutant forms of A1AT, the Z mutation (Glu342Lys on M1A, rs28929474).[15]

A1AT is a single-chain glycoprotein consisting of 394 amino acids in the mature form and exhibits many glycoforms. The three N-linked glycosylations sites are mainly equipped with so-called diantennary N-glycans. However, one particular site shows a considerable amount of heterogeneity since tri- and even tetraantennary N-glycans can be attached to the Asparagine 107 (UniProtKB amino acid nomenclature). These glycans carry different amounts of negatively charged sialic acids; this causes the heterogeneity observed on normal A1AT when analysed by isoelectric focusing. Also, the fucosylated triantennary N-glycans were shown to have the fucose as part of a so-called Sialyl Lewis x epitope,[16] which could confer this protein particular protein-cell recognition properties. The single cysteine residue of A1AT in position 256 (UniProtKB nomenclature) is found to be covalently linked to a free single cysteine by a disulfide bridge.[16]

The level of A1AT in serum is most often determined by adding an antibody that binds to A1AT, then using turbidimetry to measure how much A1AT is present. Other detection methods include the use of enzyme-linked-immuno-sorbent-assays and radial immunodiffusion.

Different analytical methods are used to determine A1AT phenotype. As protein electrophoresis is imprecise, the A1AT phenotype is analysed by isoelectric focusing (IEF) in the pH range 4.5-5.5, where the protein migrates in a gel according to its isoelectric point or charge in a pH gradient.

Normal A1AT is termed M, as it migrates toward the center of such an IEF gel. Other variants are less functional and are termed A-L and N-Z, dependent on whether they run proximal or distal to the M band. The presence of deviant bands on IEF can signify the presence of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. Since the number of identified mutations has exceeded the number of letters in the alphabet, subscripts have been added to most recent discoveries in this area, as in the Pittsburgh mutation described above.

As every person has two copies of the A1AT gene, a heterozygote with two different copies of the gene may have two different bands showing on electrofocusing, although heterozygote with one null mutant that abolishes expression of the gene will only show one band.

In blood test results, the IEF results are notated as in P_iMM, where P_i stands for protease inhibitor and "MM" is the banding pattern of that patient.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin levels in the blood depend on the genotype. Some mutant forms fail to fold properly and are, thus, targeted for destruction in the proteasome, whereas others have a tendency to polymerise, being retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. The serum levels of some of the common genotypes are:

• PiMM: 100% (normal)
• PiMS: 80% of normal serum level of A1AT
• PiSS: 60% of normal serum level of A1AT
• PiMZ: 60% of normal serum level of A1AT
• PiSZ: 40% of normal serum level of A1AT
• PiZZ: 10-15% (severe alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency)
• PiZ is caused by a glutamate to lysine mutation at position 342 (366 in pre-processed form)
• PiS is caused by a glutamate to valine mutation at position 264 (288 in pre-processed form)

Other rarer forms have been described; in all, there are over 80 variants.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin

Clinical data
Trade names	Aralast, Zemaira, Glassia, others[17]
AHFS/Drugs.com	Monograph
License data	US DailyMed: Alpha_1_proteinase_inhibitor
Routes of administration	Intravenous
ATC code	B02AB02 (WHO)
Legal status
Legal status	UK: POM (Prescription only) [18] US: ℞-only EU: Rx-only In general: ℞ (Prescription only)
Identifiers
IUPAC name Alpha-1-proteinase inhibitor
CAS Number	9041-92-3 Y
DrugBank	DB00058 Y
ChemSpider	none
UNII	F43I396OIS
ChEMBL	ChEMBL4297879
PDB ligand	KB2 (PDBe, RCSB PDB)
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)	DTXSID2040810
ECHA InfoCard	100.029.919
Chemical and physical data
Formula	C2001H3130N514O601S10
Molar mass	44324.65 g·mol−1
(verify)

Alpha-1 antitrypsin concentrates are prepared from the blood plasma of blood donors. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the use of four alpha-1 antitrypsin products derived from a human plasma: Prolastin, Zemaira, Glassia, and Aralast.[19][20][21][22][23][24] These products for intravenous augmentation A1AT therapy can cost up to $100,000 per year per patient.[25] They are administered intravenously at a dose of 60 mg/kg once a week; higher doses do not provided additional benefit although they can be used in anticipation of an interruption of weekly administration, such as for a vacation.[26]

Alpha1-proteinase inhibitor (Respreeza) was approved for medical use in the European Union in August 2015.[27] It is indicated for maintenance treatment, to slow the progression of emphysema in adults with documented severe alpha1-proteinase inhibitor deficiency (e.g., genotypes PiZZ, PiZ (null), Pi (null, null), PiSZ).[27] People are to be under optimal pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic treatment and show evidence of progressive lung disease (e.g. lower forced expiratory volume per second (FEV1) predicted, impaired walking capacity or increased number of exacerbations) as evaluated by a healthcare professional experienced in the treatment of alpha1-proteinase inhibitor deficiency.[27]

The most common side effects include dizziness, headache, dyspnoea (shortness of breath) and nausea.[27] Allergic reactions have been observed during treatment, some of which were severe.[27]

Aerosolized-augmented A1AT therapy is under study. This involves inhaling purified human A1AT into the lungs and trapping the A1AT into the lower respiratory tract. However, inhaled A1AT may not reach the elastin fibers in the lung where elastase injury occurs. Further study is currently underway. Recombinant alpha-1 antitrypsin is not yet available for use as a medication but is under development.

Axelsson and Laurell first investigated the possibility of allelic variants of A1AT leading to disease in 1965.[28]

• Alpha 1-antichymotrypsin, another serpin that is analogous for protecting the body from excessive effects of its own inflammatory proteases

• "Alpha 1-Antitrypsin". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
• The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: I04.001
• Proteopedia: Alpha-1-antitrypsin
• Human SERPINA1 genome location and SERPINA1 gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser.