Menstrual hygiene management

Poor MHM may affect the reproductive tract, but the specific infections, the strength of effect, and the route of transmission remain unclear.[16] In India, a majority of girls are at risk for reproductive tract infections (RTI) because of poor MHM. RTI can lead to various disabilities if not treated early on[17] and are the cause of 30–50% of prenatal infection.[18] Due to prejudices surrounding the issue, some women in India do not eat or take showers during their menstruation.[19]

Girls' self-image may be negatively impacted by adverse attitudes towards menstruation.[20][21]

The onset of menstruation is challenging for school-aged girls in low-income settings. Impacts can include school absenteeism, missed class time, reduced participation, teasing, fear and shame, and risky adaptive behaviors.[22] Further challenges that menstruating school girls face are a lack of knowledge, communication, and practical guidance prior to menarche and during menstruation; inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities; and ineffective or unavailable menstrual management materials.[22]

In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, girls can miss up to 5 days of school a month or drop out entirely due to insufficient access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities and menstrual hygiene products.[23][24] Improving access to WASH facilities can actually increase girls' attendance at school. A program for school sanitation in Bangladesh increased girls' enrollment at school by 11%.[25]

Menstrual waste is largely ignored in schools in developing countries, despite it being a significant problem. Girls' access to water and sanitation at school is only available at 47% and 46% of all schools globally.[6] Often, school toilets for girls (if they even exist) are missing bins for menstrual waste collection with the result that pads may be spread all around the school compound area.[26] This pollutes the environment and also causes embarrassment for the school girls.

In the United States, among other countries, girls who are unable to afford feminine hygiene products may miss school in order "to avoid the embarrassment of staining their clothes".[27]

Period poverty is a term used to describe the lack of access to adequate menstrual hygiene management supplies and education, including sanitary products (e.g., tampons, pads, liners, menstrual cups), washing facilities, and disposal management.[28] Period poverty is a global health issue that affects many individuals living in low- and middle-income countries, with many young adolescents using materials such as mud, leaves, old paper, cotton, or animal skin to manage their periods.[29] The use of alternative products, or using products longer than intended, can lead to health complications, infections, and long-term health issues.[30] "In a 2018 study commissioned by U by Kotex, one in four women surveyed struggled to purchase period products. In the same study, one in five low-wage women reported missing work, school or similar events due to lack of access to period supplies. These instances were linked to reported feelings of embarrassment, disappointment and depression."[31] [32][33]

Despite known health consequences, period poverty is often overlooked and not discussed due to social and cultural stigmas and taboos.[34] In recent years, many governments have actively increased access to affordable sanitary products and changing social norms towards menstruation. Scotland offers its residents free period products while Kenya and New Zealand offer free period products for students in public schools.[35] Many organizations are spreading awareness to policy makers about the problem of girls missing school due to period poverty. [32][33]

However, period poverty remains a prevalent issue in the United States. In the United States, federal aid programs including food stamps, SNAP benefits, and WIC benefits do not cover purchases of feminine hygiene products.[33][36] With the lack of government support and high taxes on menstrual products, many women choose forgo purchase of sanitary products for other needs. For instance, two-thirds of 16.9 million low-income women cannot afford sanitary products and have to choose between sanitary products and food.[37] Currently, there are 14 states that ensure students have access to menstrual products in school bathrooms.[36] But school closures during the early onset of the COVID-19 pandemic challenges low-income students’ access to pads and tampons.[36]

The homeless population also has difficulty accessing menstrual products.[30]  In a mixed-method study conducted from May to August 2019 in New York City with homeless individuals, many participants reported that they had uncertain access to safe, clean, and private spaces for changing period products.[38] Many reported that the bathrooms in their homeless shelters were dirty or flooded.[38] They also reported feeling shamed and embarrassed in the public with the possibility of menstrual leakage.[38] While most of the research on period poverty in the United States has largely focused on the homeless population and low-income school students, college students also report high rates, affecting school attendance and mental health, respectively.[39][40] In 2021, approximately 14.2% of menstruating college students reported experiencing period poverty.[41]  

In low-income countries, girls’ choices of menstrual hygiene materials are often limited by the costs, availability and social norms.[42][43]

Absorption materials that may be used by women who cannot afford commercially produced materials include: sand, ash, small hole in earth,[44] cloth, whole leaf, leaf fiber (such as water hyacinth, banana, papyrus, cotton fibre), paper (toilet paper, re-used newspaper, brown paper bags, pulped and dried paper),[45] animal pelt (such as goat skin),[44] double layer of underwear, socks, skirt, or sari.[46][47]

A lack of affordable hygiene products means inadequate, unhygienic alternatives are used, which can present a serious health risk.[48][49] Menstrual cups offer a long-term solution compared to some other feminine hygiene products because they do not need to be replaced monthly. The quality of the material also makes them a reliable and healthy menstrual hygiene solution, as long as there is access to clean water for washing them.

Girls and women in the workplace often miss work because they don't have access to sanitary materials and places of employment in some countries do not provide resources for women or even have "proper toilets".[21] Women in Bangladesh who work in factories have reported that due to the cost of sanitary products for menstruation which they could not afford, they have resorted to using "factory-floor rags in place of pads and tampons, leading to dangerous infections and missed work."[50]

Menstruation can be a barrier to education for many girls, as a lack of effective sanitary products restricts girls' involvement in educational and social activities.[51][52] Often they do not attend school due to fear of leaking, shame or embarrassment, period pain or inadequate sanitation facilities that do not allow them to wash or change in privacy.[53] This applies mainly to schoolgirls from low-income families, since disposable hygiene products are a monthly expense that many females simply cannot afford.[54]

Adequate sanitation facilities and access to menstrual hygiene products are just one part of the solution to menstrual taboos that impede women's progress in many developing countries. Knowledge is critical for girls to feel comfortable with menstruation and to gain a positive awareness of their bodies.[55]

Access to menstrual hygiene products may be limited in prisons and correctional facilities where the services have been historically designed for the male population. In 2021 there were around 740,000 women in prisons around the world[56]

Many low-income and/or homeless girls and women in the inner cities of the United States cannot afford sanitary supplies.[27][57] Food banks in New York report that feminine hygiene products are in high demand.[27] Homeless women in the United States may face the challenge of not being able to shower or use the communal toilet in homeless shelters as often as they need to in cases where there are restrictions on toilet usage.[57] In New York, proposals to help lower-income women access menstrual sanitary supplies include proposals to remove the sales tax on feminine hygiene products and "distributing free tampons in public schools."[27] Sales tax are levied on menstrual supplies in 36 states.[58] On May 1, 2018, the National Diaper Bank Network, which provides millions of diapers to poor and low income parents and advocates for policy change around basic needs, launched the Alliance for Period Supplies and began distributing free period products through allied organizations across the U.S.[59] Homeless women in other industrialized countries, such as the United Kingdom, face problems affording tampons and sanitary napkins.[60] Scotland became the first country in the world to provide universal access to free period products in 2020 [61]

A review in 2018 found that disposal of menstrual waste is often neglected in sanitation systems. This leads to improper disposal and negative impacts on users, the sanitation systems and the environment.[62]

Solid waste disposal systems in developing countries are often lacking, which means women have no proper place to dispose of used products, such as pads.[63] Inappropriate disposal of used materials also creates pressures on sanitation systems as menstrual hygiene products can create blockages of toilets, pipes and sewers.[64]

It is estimated that tampons, pads, and applicators, generates 200,000 tonnes of plastic waste in the UK each year. [65]

In developing countries, women experience a lack of access to affordable menstrual hygiene products in addition to a lack of access to other services such as sanitation and waste disposal systems needed to manage their menstrual cycles. Lack of access to waste disposal leads women to throw used products in toilet systems, pit latrines, or discarded into open areas such as bodies of water. These practices pose dangers to workers who handle these wastes as it increases possible exposure to bloodborne infections in soaked menstrual products and exposure to chemicals found in menstrual hygiene products. Inappropriate disposal also creates pressures on sanitation systems as menstrual hygiene products create sewage blockages.[64] The effects of these inadequate facilities have been shown to have social effects on girls in developing countries leading to school absenteeism.[66]

Despite the fact that menstruation is a healthy biological process, it is approached with hesitance and misinformation because of deeply-rooted cultural taboos surrounding menstruation.

Cultural, religious and traditional beliefs — particularly in developing countries — can lead to restrictions that women or girls face during their period. In some societies, women do not wash their bodies, shower, or bathe during menstruation. They may not be allowed to use water sources during menstruation. Even if they have access to toilets, they might not use them because of the fear of staining the toilet bowls (in the case of dry toilets or flush toilets where the flush is not powerful).[54] This impairs the use of menstrual cups compared to pads as the cups are normally emptied into toilets.

Expanding the discussion to include consideration of waste management is part of the attempt to "normalize" conversations about menstruation.[3][4]