2
Inventory of Innovative Indoor Smoke
Alleviating Technologies in Nepal
areas, the main sources of energy are firewood,
kerosene and other commercial energy resources which
contribute about 39, 35 and 25 per cent respectively
(CBS 2003). Energy demand has been consistently
increasing due to population growth and highly required
economic growth (ICIMOD 2006).
Agriculture is the mainstay of about 85 per cent of Nepal’s
rural population. HHs in rural hilly areas consumes about
6 tons of firewood during summer and 7.6 tons in winter.
In Terai, HHs consume 3.7 tons of firewood in summer
and 5.4 tons in winter (Winrock 2004). It is estimated
that residential cooking, which account about 65 per
cent of total energy consumption in rural areas, is the
single largest energy end use activity. Similarly, space
heating, agricultural processing, water boiling, lighting
and other activities account to 8, 3, 2, 1 and 21 per cent
respectively. The end use energy activity of urban HH
for cooking, lighting, heating/cooling, agro processing,
animal food processing and other activities account to
51, 10, 10, 3, 8 and 14 per cent respectively (WECS 2005).
In mountainous region, out of total HH energy
consumption, cooking and space heating utilise 32 and
56 per cent respectively; the remaining 12 per cent is
consumed for lighting, use of electrical appliances, water
boiling and agro-processing activities. Likewise, energy
consumption for cooking and space heating in hilly
region is 40 and 36 per cent respectively; and the
remaining 24 per cent is consumed for lighting, electrical
appliances, water boiling and agro processing activities
(CRT/N 2005).
1.2 Indoor air pollution (IAP) and its effect
Combustion is a complex sequence of chemical reactions
of fuel and oxidant accompanied by the production of
heat or both heat and light in the form of either glow or
flames. Smoke which is a result of incomplete
combustion depends on the type of wood or other
biomass burning, the temperature of the fire, wind
conditions, and more importantly the moisture content
in fuel (Ballard-Tremeer 1997, cited by Bates et al. 2005).
When biomass is burnt, it emits harmful chemicals such
as particulates, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, and
nitrogen dioxide along with carbon dioxide and water
vapour (Ban et al. 2004) and the indoor concentration
of such pollutants is established by the rates of their
production and removal from the environment (Saldiva
and Miraglia 2004). One of the four greatest risks causing
deaths and diseases in the world’s poorest countries is
smoke from solid fuel combustion affecting more than
two billion poor people (Warwick and Doig 2004).
The fine particles in smoke can go deep into the lungs
and these particles alone or in combination with other
air pollutants can cause pre-existing lung diseases to
worsen. The technology to burn the solid fuels in three-
stone or rudimentary stoves results in poor combustion
efficiency with increased level of IAP. Poverty with
availability of biomass at no monetary cost, lack of
problem recognition by policy-makers, lack of funds at
government level to address the problem, and inferior
status of women and children in many poor communities
are some of the major reasons for not receiving focal
attention to IAP (Ballard-Tremeer 1997, cited by Bates
et al. 2005).
IAP causes various health hazards such as, acute lower
respiratory infection (ALRI), chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer (mainly due to
coals), pulmonary tuberculosis, low birth weight and
infant mortality, cataracts, asthma and cardiovascular
diseases (Warwick and Doig 2004). The leading cause
of human death and disability around the world are
chronic bronchitis and COPD. It is also reported that
reproductive function in females could be the target of
air contaminants and the exposure of women to
emissions generated by biomass stoves has shown
significant increase in the rate of lung and laryngeal
cancers (Smith and Liu 1993, Clifford 1972 cited by
Saldiva and Miraglia 2004). Homes of underdeveloped
world have pollution level 100 times higher than the
developed which possess serious ambient pollution
issues. IAP causes catastrophic health problems
especially in women and children (two groups that spend
the most time indoors cooking and standing near fires)
attributing to 1.8 million deaths per year - roughly three
deaths in a minute (Ban et al. 2004). Of the total deaths,
56 per cent are children below five years (Bates et al.
2005). IAP kills more children annually than malaria or
HIV/AIDS and claims nearly one million children’s lives
each year.
In regional and global scale, the adverse effects of
unsustainable use of biomass fuel especially fuel wood
is immensely contributing to global warming resulting
in increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
This accounts to damages on the earth system including
increase in average temperatures accompanied by
change in rainfall pattern, vegetation pattern or extreme
weather conditions collectively known as climate
change. As large populations rely on biomass fuels for
cooking in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, large GHG
concentration has been traced in these areas. Likewise,
in the North-Eastern United States, wood used for
heating contributes to GHG emission (Bond et al. 2004).
Burning of fossil fuels and extensive use of biomass
are the major sources of GHG emission in Nepal.
Increasing combustion efficiency or switching to cleaner
energy sources are two possible ways to reduce GHG
emission (Bond et al. 2004).