Chapacuran languages
The Chapacuran languages are a nearly extinct Native American language family of South America. Almost all Chapacuran languages are extinct, and the four that are extant are moribund. They are spoken in Rondônia in the southern Amazon Basin of Brazil and in northern Bolivia.
| Chapacuran | |
|---|---|
| Chapacura–Wanham | |
| Linguistic classification | Wamo–Chapakúra ?
|
| Subdivisions |
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| Glottolog | chap1271 |
 | |
According to Kaufman (1990),[1] the Chapacuran family could be related to the extinct Wamo language.
Languages
Angenot (1997)
List of Chapacuran languages from Angenot (1997):[2]
Birchall (2013)
Birchall et al. (2013) classify the dozen known Chapacuran languages as follows:[3]
- Chapacuran
All languages are rather closely related.
Extinct languages for which Loukotka says 'nothing' is known, but which may have been Chapacuran, include Cujuna, Mataua, Urunumaca, and Herisobocono. Similarities with Mure appear to be loans.[4]
Language contact
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Irantxe, Puinave-Kak, and Arawa language families due to contact.[6]
Varieties
Below is a full list of Chapacuran language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[7]
- Chapacura / Huachi / Tapacura - extinct language once spoken on the Blanco River and around Lake Chitiopa, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia.
- Irene / Moré - spoken on the Guaporé River, Azul River, and Mamoré River, Beni province, Bolivia.
- Itoreauhip - spoken between the Guaporé River and Azul River in Bolivia.
- Quitemo - once spoken on the Uruvaito River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia.
- Nape - once spoken in the same country on Lake Chitiopa.
- Mure - once spoken on the San Martín River in Bolivia.
- Rocorona - once spoken on the San Martín River.
- Herisebocon - once spoken on the Rapulo River near the old mission of San Borja, Bolivia. (Unattested.)
- Wañám / Huanyam / Pawumwa - spoken between the São Miguel River and São Domingo River, territory of Rondônia, Brazil.
- Abitana - spoken as a dialect of the Wañám language at the sources of the São Miguel River, Brazil.
- Kumana / Cautario - spoken between the Guaporé River and Cautario River, Rondônia.
- Pacahanovo / Uari Wayõ - spoken on the Pacaás Novos River, Rondônia.
- Kabixi - spoken between the São Miguel River and Preto River, Rondônia, now perhaps extinct.
- Mataua - spoken in the western area of the Cautario River. (Unattested.)
- Urunamacan - spoken to the north of the Wañám tribe, Rondônia, Brazil. (Unattested.)
- Uómo / Miguelheno - spoken on the São Miguel River. (Unattested.)
- Tapoaya - spoken by an unknown tribe at the sources of the Cautario River. (Unattested.)
- Cujuna - spoken by a very little known tribe, now perhaps extinct, to the north of the Kumaná tribe. (Unattested.)
- Urupá / Ituarupa - spoken on the Urupá River, Rondônia.
- Yarú - spoken by a few families on the Jaru River.
- Yamarú - extinct language once spoken on the Jamari River. (Unattested.)
- Torá / Tura - formerly spoken on the Marmelos River and Paricá River, state of Amazonas; now by a few individuals on the Posta Cabeça d'anta, state of Amazonas.
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Chapacuran languages.[7]
| gloss | Chapacura | Itene | Itoreauhip | Quitemo | Nape | Wañám | Abitana | Kumaná | Pacahanovo | Urupá | Yarú | Torá |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| eye | tuku-chi | to | ku-chi | tukichuː | tükesi | tekisí | tokú | |||||
| tooth | yati-chi | yía | iyadi-che | yitinchi | yititai | yatiti | yetisi | itisí | yatí | |||
| tongue | tapuitaka-chi | kapaya | kapikaka-che | kabíkachu | kapiyakati | kapiyakati | kapiakasi | kapiakasí | képiat | |||
| water | akum | komo | ako | akon | kúm | kum | kum | kom | kõ | kom | ||
| fire | ise | iche | ise | isze | iché | itsä | icha | isé | iseː | ixé | ||
| sun | huapiito | napito | mapito | papuito | mapiito | gwapiru | mapirú | mapitó | kumém | komém | apuetó | |
| star | huiüiyao | pipiyo | pil'ahu | pipiáo | útin | piú | pipiyó | upiú | upió | upiú | pipiyó | |
| maize | xadö | mapa | kal'ao | kal'ao | map | mapaːk | mapaːk | mapág | mapá | mapák | ||
| jaguar | kiñam | ine | orahuiko | kiñam | kiñó | kinam | kinam | kinám | komen | wakara | ||
| bow | parami | pari | pari | pani | parú | pari | etsmen | mapíp | mapip | parí |
Proto-language
| Proto-Chapacuran | |
|---|---|
| Proto-Chapakura | |
| Reconstruction of | Chapacuran languages |
Below are Proto-Chapacuran (Proto-Chapakura) reconstructions from the Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL) online,[8] cited from Angenot de Lima (1997).[9] English glosses are from DiACL, and the original Portuguese glosses are from Angenot de Lima (1997). For the full list of original Portuguese glosses, see the corresponding Portuguese article.
Proto-Chapacuran English gloss Portuguese gloss Scientific name *haɾam to button *hoɾam chin *ja: to say, to speak *jaw pillar, to grind with a stone *jaʔ to bathe *jikat penis *jowin monkey species macaco-prego Sapajus *ju: to keep secret seguir às escondidas *juk to push, to remove *kamaɲʔ bland, without salt *kap caterpillar species *kapam pamonha (traditional food) *kaɾaʔ/*hwaɾaʔ large, fat *kat, *kawʔ river dolphin *kat, *ɾat to yawn *katim foot *katinʔ large tick *katʃak/*katʃok to tickle, tickling *katʃin pineapple *kawʔ to eat *kawa: tree species árvore-rochinha *kawa: kind of small arrow, used by children playing *kawit parrot species papagaio-curica *kedzek to lick *kenum cocoa *kijiʔ to descend, to lower *kinam jaguar, dog *kipun tail *kipwin (to be) cold *kitam bridge, jirau grill[10] ponte, grelha para moquear *kiw to bite, to chew *kiwoʔ arrow (generic) *koki: piranha *kom to sing (people) *komeN sun *koɾa: paddle *koɾan palm species palmeira-carundaí buriti? *kotem red, ripe *kotok/*koɾok to knock down fruits by beating the tree *kɾam elbow, joint *kɾan ant species formiga-saúva Atta *kɾik to see, to observe, to look *kɾom to enter, inside *kuk to pull, to drag *kunʔ tree species árvore-cachimbeira, jequitibá-vermelho; sal Cariniana rubra *kunu: to stink, bad smell *kut to pick, to catch *kwaɾaʔ common armadillo *ma(w) to go *madzan kind of yam batata-cará *makiʔ to come, to arrive *manaʔ anger, brave *mapak corn *mapawʔ club, baton *mapom fat, grease *mapwip kind of small bow *maɾam to paint, to write *mawi: to steal, thief *mawin annatto (tree species), wood for making fire Bixa orellana *mekuʔ crab *mem red, ripe *mikop paca *mitʃem black *mo: to run *mokon rope, cord, string, thread *mom to swell because of illness, to have a tumor *moɾoʔ flour *mowawʔ tucumã palm larva broca do tucumã larva of Astrocaryum aculeatum *mowin pus, infection, tumour *muɾinʔ swallow *mwijak wild hog *n(e/o)n to whistle with help from the hand *nak to smell, to sniff *naɾan pitch/tar (of jatobá tree); light breu (de jatobá); luz Hymenaea courbaril *natan face, front *nok to hate, to reject *nok to suckle *nopon tree species árvore-itaúba Mezilaurus itauba *pa: to beat, to slap *padzaw pubic hair *pakaʔ red, ripe *pana: tree (generic), wood, log *papat bamboo species, kind of arrow, bomboo knife taquara (esp.); flecha (esp.); faca de bambu *papop wind *paɾV: bow (generic) *patiʔ animal (generic), fish *pawʔ to tie (up) *paʔ to kill, to hunt, to beat to death *pijeʔ newborn child *pikot giant armadillo tatu gigante *pipon bird species cujubim Pipile cujubi *piɾamʔ squirrel quoati-puru, esquilo *pitʃak to scratch, to itch *pitʃi: horn *piwan tarantula aranha caranguejeira *piʔ to dance *pok thigh, upper leg *pon to fart *pot to pull out *pot to get, to tear, to extract *potʃ to cook; to spit cozinhar; cuspir *poʔ to wake up, to rouse *pɾin parakeet *pɾu: to kill, to hit a target with an arrow *pu: to blow, to light a fire *puɾek to miss the target with an arrow *pwe: to sit *pwikun stone, rock *pwin to leave behind *pwiɾan boa *pwit to break, to cut, to extract, to unrip *pwiti: large horsefly *pwitsi: palm species palmeira-totai Acrocomia aculeata subsp. totai *pwitsop porcupine, hedgehog *pwiw flower *ɾi:(tan) banana (generic) *tajin charcoal *takat wax (honey, ear, for arrow, etc.) *takawʔ kind of fish peixe-cará Geophagus brasiliensis *takiʔ to fly, to leave flying *tan leaf, one *tapan monkey species macaco-saguim Callitrichidae; Callithrix jacchus *tapiw agouti *tapot straw, cover/roofing of house *tata: father (1SG.POSS) *tataw rope made of tree fibers; horn envira (esp.); chifre *tatsam to laugh, to smile *tatʃiʔ husband *tawan lazy, sulky, disobedient *tawi: bee (generic), honey *tawit fence, surrounded *taʔ to cut *tikat to finish *tim heart *tipan arm *tipat wing *tipoʔ to follow a trail *titimʔ/*tiɾimʔ to lie down *tok to drink *tok eye, grain, seed, stone *toke: chestnut, Brazil nut *tom to burn, black *tomiʔ to say, to speak *ton to knock down fruits by beating the tree *top to explode, to break corn *topak mouth, lips, to speak *topan skin, peel, bark *topop basket (generic) *toɾo: to swell, to ferment, to cause swelling *totʃam clay *totʃik bee species, honey abelha-lambeolho; seu mel Leurotrigona muelleri *towa: turtle, tortoise; rubber cylinder (?) tartaruga, tracaja, jabuti; tambor de caucho *towan kind of fruit fruta-murisi Byrsonima crassifolia *towaʔ white, bright color, daybreak/dawn *towin parrot species papagaio-curica *toʔ to beat, to open, to crack, to cut *tɾakom bamboo, taboca (bamboo species) bambu; taboca Guadua weberbaueri *tɾakop fermented drink *tɾamaʔ man *tɾamwin red macaw *tɾan tɾan guan bird jacu Penelope *tɾapo: white hair *tɾawan liver; palm species, fish species fígado; palmeira-patua; patua; surubim Pimelodidae *tɾik coal, ember *tɾot aricuri palm leaf Syagrus coronata *tʃak to suck on a fruit *tʃek day *tʃijat net *tʃik one *tʃikinʔ nail, claw; traíra (fish species) unha, garra; traíra (peixe) Erythrinidae *tʃin to throw *tʃitot country, to plant *tʃiw (to be) cold *tʃok to suck "noisily", to make a "sucking" sound *tʃom to step; to insist pisar, bater o pé *tʃopin to spit *tʃoraw swallow *tʃowiʔ rain, winter *tʃup to kiss "noisily" *tun hair, coat *tut to walk *wak to add, to pile up *waki: toad species *wan to copulate, to have sex *wana: way, path, road *waɲam Indian of enemy tribe *waɾak sap, sperm, vaginal secretion *watam kind of fruit *watʃik common opossum mucura Didelphis marsupialis *wet to marry *weʔ to vomit *wijak to scrape with a knife *wijam small *wina: to raise an animal, to tame/domesticate *wina: grandson *winimʔ to wait, to except *witʃiʔ to roast on coal/ember *ʔajiʔ older brother *ʔaka: to sing (of bird), to cackle, to cry *ʔakom water; river; rain *ʔakop manioc, cassava *ʔam edge, margin *ʔamiʔ to give *ʔamon excrements, feces, intestines, belly *ʔamwi: very, much *ʔaɲ to cry *ʔanin younger sister *ʔapa: palm species palmeira-marayau Bactris major *ʔapam shoulder *ʔapan kind of fruit *ʔapaʔ maternal grandmother *ʔapi: thorn, needle, hook *ʔapi: father-in-law *ʔapiʔ to finish *ʔapo: uncle (aunt's husband) *ʔapop caiman jacaré *ʔatat bone, leg *ʔataw/*ʔaɾaw back, shoulders *ʔatin younger brother *ʔatɾim house, traditional village (maloca) *ʔatʃaʔ younger sibling *ʔatʃem to sneeze *ʔaw to spill liquid, to bleed, to leak, to drain, to drip *ʔawan bitter *ʔawan tree species with venomous bark *ʔawan pig, hog, capybara *ʔawi: good, beautiful, tasty *ʔawik blood *ʔawin sky, height, to charge upwards *ʔawom cotton; clothes; dove/pigeon species algodão; roupa; pomba (esp.) *ʔawum 2SG *ʔenem brother-in-law (sister's husband) *ʔep pillar, to grind with a stone *ʔeɾum trumpeter (bird species) jacamim Psophia *ʔew burn *ʔewu: toucan *ʔihwam fish (generic) *ʔijat tooth, beak *ʔijaʔ vessel made of palm vasilha feita de cacho de palmeira *ʔijewʔ paternal grandfather *ʔiji: palm species palmeira-bacaba Oenocarpus bacaba *ʔijinʔ fear, to fear *ʔijoʔ to put out, to erase *ʔikan kind of mosquito mosquito-catoqui *ʔikat medicine man, sorcerer *ʔikat to break *ʔikim chest, thorax *ʔikit knife, iron instrument *ʔiman hole, vagina *ʔimiʔ kind of mosquito or fly pium, borrachudo Simuliidae *ʔimwinʔ tapir *ʔimwiʔ to die, dead *ʔinamʔ pregnant *ʔinawʔ bat *ʔinaʔ mother *ʔipa: to open (eyes, door) *ʔipan to fall, to be born *ʔipik latex, rubber seringa; borracha *ʔipwik anteater species tamanduá-mirim Tamandua tetradactyla *ʔiɾam açaí palm palmeira-açai *ʔiɾiʔ (to be) right, truth *ʔit body *ʔitak to swallow *ʔitaʔ/*ʔiɾaʔ to urinate *ʔite: father (1SG.POSS) *ʔitʃe: fire, firewood *ʔitsim night *ʔitʃin centipede, millipede *ʔiwʔ louse *ʔiwan to get home *ʔiwi: mat *ʔiwiʔ smoke *ʔodzip palm species palmeira-najá Attalea maripa *ʔojam spirit, soul of a corpse *ʔojop pacu (fish species) *ʔokin scorpion *ʔokon palm species palmeira-real / buriti Mauritia flexuosa *ʔomaʔ to live, to have, to exist *ʔomi: scrubland, bush, firm land *ʔon to whistle without help from the hand *ʔonaɲ palm species palmeira-buruburu Astrocaryum murumuru *ʔonok navel, belly button *ʔop to dance *ʔopaʔ bagre (fish species) bagre *ʔopi: woodworm/beetle species caruncho rola-bosta; besouro (esp.) *ʔopot kind of liana used for binding cipó-ambé, usado para amarrar *ʔoɾam cheek *ʔorawʔ mushroom species *ʔoro: people of, clan of, kind of *ʔoɾom gourd, calabash *ʔoɾot to break out (2nd permanent tooth of a child) *ʔotin curassow (bird species) mutum Cracidae *ʔoto: gourd, calabash *ʔotsiw monkey species macaco-de-cheiro amarelo Saimiri *ʔowam kind of fish peixe-jeju Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus *ʔowit wart *ʔoβi: anum (bird species) Crotophaga *ʔukun flesh (of the body), body *ʔum hand *ʔumwe: bird (generic) *ʔupwek head *ʔupweɲ to sleep *ʔuɾin ant species formiga-da-castanha *ʔutuɾ nose *ʔutut urine *ʔuwe: older sister *ʔuwew paternal grandmother *ʔuwit name *ʔuʔ ant species formiga-saraça
Notes and references
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Chapacuran reconstructions
- Kaufman, Terrence (1990). "Language History in South America: What we know and how to know more". In David L. Payne (ed.). Amazonian Linguistics. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Angenot, Geralda de Lima (1997). Fonotática e Fonologia do Lexema Protochapacura Archived 2021-02-05 at the Wayback Machine. Dissertação do Mestrado, Universidade Federal de Rondônia.
- Birchall, Joshua and Dunn, Michael and Greenhill, Simon (2013) An internal classification of the Chapacuran language family.
- Hammarström, Harald; Forke, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2020). "Chapacuran". Glottolog 4.3.
- Birchall, Joshua; Dunn, Michael; Greenhill, Simon J. (2016). "A Combined Comparative and Phylogenetic Analysis of the Chapacuran Language Family". International Journal of American Linguistics. 82 (3): 255–284. doi:10.1086/687383. hdl:2066/166431. ISSN 0020-7071.
- Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2016). Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas (Ph.D. dissertation) (2 ed.). Brasília: University of Brasília.
- Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
- "Proto-Chapacuran". Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL). Retrieved 29 January 2020.
- Angenot de Lima, Geralda (1997). Fonotática e Fonologia do Lexema Protochapacura. Master's dissertation, Universidade Federal de Rondônia.
- Jirau is a kind of indigenous frame for grilling meat or fish.
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