Climate change and infectious diseases

Aedes aegypti, the mosquito that is the vector for dengue transmission.

Global climate change has resulted in a wide range of impacts on the spread of infectious diseases. Like other climate change impacts on human health, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease. Infectious diseases whose transmission can be impacted by climate change include dengue fever, malaria, tick-borne diseases, leishmaniasis and Ebola virus disease. For example, climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the mosquito that can carry dengue.

One Health, a model that considers veterinary and human health parts of an integrated whole, is partly a response to the increase of epidemic risks that arise from climate change.[1] There is no direct evidence that the spread of COVID-19 is worsened or is caused by climate change, although investigations continue.

Background

Part of a series on
Climate change and
society
Effects · Risk
Economics · Finance
  • Carbon footprint
    • Carbon accounting
    • Carbon offsets and credits
    • Global warming potential
    • Greenhouse gas inventory
    • Net zero emissions
  • Carbon price
    • Carbon bubble
    • Carbon emission trading
    • Carbon fee and dividend
    • Carbon tax
    • Social cost of carbon
  • Climate change scenario
  • ESG
  • Green bank
  • Green bond
  • Green bubble
  • Insurance
    • Act of God
    • Extreme event attribution
    • Resilience
    • Risk management
    • Vulnerability
  • Mitigation economics
Social issues · Ethics
  • Children
  • Climate justice
  • Debt
  • Gender
  • Indigenous peoples
  • Fossil fuel divestment
  • Human rights
  • Just transition
  • Migration
  • Mitigation co-benefits
  • Poverty
  • Security
  • Women
Communication
  • Climate crisis
  • Education
  • Greenwashing
  • Media coverage
  • Popular culture
    • fiction
    • art
  • Psychology of denial
  • Public opinion
Politics
  • History
  • Political economy
  • Climate governance
  • Climate movement
  • Conspiracy theories
  • Denial
  • Global warming controversy
  • Litigation
  • Individual actions
  • UNFCCC
  • UN conferences
  • Kyoto Protocol
  • Paris Agreement
  • List-Class article Glossary
  • List-Class article Index

The World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 because little was known about health issues caused by global climate change.[2] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has presented three assessment reports. IPCC First Assessment Report, IPCC Second Assessment Report and IPCC Third Assessment Report wrote about climate change, potential health risks caused by climate change and early evidence of actual health impacts.[2] IPPC and other policy-related assessments at the regional and national levels stimulated scientific studies to understand the climate-health relationships.[2]

A noticeable effect of global climate change is the increase of temperature. Since the beginning of record-keeping of temperature in the U.S. in 1895, the average temperature has increased by 1.3 °F to 1.9 °F.[3]: 26  This is because the concentrations of greenhouse gases increase.[4] Based on this information the annual average U.S. temperatures are expected to increase by 3 °F (−16 °C) to 10 °F (−12 °C), which will have direct effects on human health.[4] Extreme temperatures affect the body by compromising its ability to regulate its internal temperature and by worsening chronic conditions such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.[4] Air quality is also negatively affected by climate change, which produces higher concentrations of CO
2, higher temperatures and changes in precipitation. This is expected to worsen respiratory conditions.[5] Climate change affects the growing season and the pollen because the start or duration of the growing season becomes extended, and the quantity, the allergenicity and the spatial distribution of pollen increase.[5] Climate change affects vector-borne diseases by affecting the survival, distribution and behavior of vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks and rodents.[3]: 29  The viruses, bacteria and protozoa are carried by these vectors transferring it from carrier to another.[6] Vector and pathogen can adapt to the climate fluctuations by shifting and expanding their geographic ranges, which can alter the rate of new cases of disease depending on vector-host interaction, host immunity and pathogen evolution.[7] This means that climate change affects infectious diseases by impacting their length of the transmission season and their geographical range.[8] Vector-borne diseases are a concern because they have played a significant role in human history by determining the rise and fall of civilizations.[8] This is why the World Health Organization considers climate change as one of the greatest threats to human health.[8] Diseases that are products of climate change fall under the scope of environmental health professionals, who study how to control environmental factors that affect human health.[9]

Another study concluded in 2022 that "58% (that is, 218 out of 375) of infectious diseases confronted by humanity worldwide have been at some point aggravated by climatic hazards".[10][11]

Ebola

Ebola is one of the deadliest viruses, starting out as a small outbreak and eventually turning into a major global issue. The first time the virus was noticed was in 1976 near the Ebola River in Democratic Republic of Congo. The virus has been infecting people from time to time, leading to outbreaks in several African countries. The average case fatality rate of the Ebola virus is approximately 40% and there have been more than 28,600 cases with 11,310 deaths.[12] Recent studies are holding climate change liable for the uptick in Ebola. Many researchers are linking deforestation to the disease, observing that change in the landscape increases wildlife contact with humans.[13] Ebola virus is typically found in animals of the wild and can be transmitted from these animals to humans when exposed to infected bodily fluids.[12]

The virus can also be transmitted from another human when in direct contact with the virus hosts blood, vomit, or feces. Seasonal droughts alongside strong winds, thunderstorms, heat waves, floods, landslides, and a change in rainfall patterns also impact wildlife migration. These conditions pull them away from their natural environment and closer to human proximity.[14]

One example of an Ebola outbreak caused by climate change or a shift in nature was seen during the drought of Central Africa. This ultimately amplified food insecurity leading West African communities to eat animals such as bats who were infected with the virus.[13]

Malaria

Further information: Malaria

Increased precipitation like rain could increase the number of mosquitos indirectly by expanding larval habitat and food supply. Malaria, which kills approximately 300,000 children (under age 5) annually, poses an imminent threat through temperature increase.[15] Models suggest, conservatively, that risk of malaria will increase 5–15% by 2100 due to climate change.[16] In Africa alone, according to the MARA Project (Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa),[17] there is a projected increase of 16–28% in person-month exposures to malaria by 2100.[18]

Climate is an influential driving force of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. Malaria is especially susceptible to the effects of climate change because mosquitoes lack the mechanisms to regulate their internal temperature. This implies that there is a limited range of climatic conditions within which the pathogen (malaria) and vector (a mosquito) can survive, reproduce, and infect hosts.[19] Vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, have distinctive characteristics that determine pathogenicity. These include the survival and reproduction rate of the vector, the level of vector activity (i.e., the biting or feeding rate), and the development and reproduction rate of the pathogen within the vector or host.[19] Changes in climate factors substantially affect reproduction, development, distribution, and seasonal transmissions of malaria.

Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease that infects humans and other animals caused by microorganisms in the Plasmodium family. It begins with a bite from an infected female mosquito, which introduces the parasite through its saliva and into the infected host's circulatory system. It then travels through the bloodstream into the liver where it can mature and reproduce.[20] The disease causes symptoms that typically include fever, headache, shaking chills, anemia, and in severe cases can progress to coma or death. "About 3.2 billion people – nearly half of the world's population – are at risk of malaria. In 2015, there were roughly 214 million malaria cases and an estimated 438,000 malaria deaths."[21]

Mosquitoes have a small window for preferential conditions for breeding and maturation. The ultimate breeding and maturing temperature for mosquitoes ranges from 16 to 18 degrees Celsius.[22] If the temperature is decreased by 2 degrees, most of the insects will succumb to death. This is why malaria is unsustainable in places with cool winters. When a climate with an average of approximately 16 degrees Celsius experiences an increase of about two degrees, the mature bugs, and the larvae flourish. Anopheles mosquitoes will need more food (human/animal blood) to sustain life and to stimulate production of eggs. This increases the chance of spreading malaria due to more human contact and a higher number of the blood sucking insects surviving and living longer. Mosquitoes are also highly sensitive to changes in precipitation and humidity. Increased precipitation can increase mosquito population indirectly by expanding larval habitat and food supply.[23] These prime temperatures are creating large breeding grounds for the insects and places for the larvae to mature. Increased temperature is causing snow to melt and stagnant pools of water to become more common. Bugs that are already carrying the disease are more likely to multiply and infect other mosquitoes causing a dangerous spread of the deadly disease.

Climate change has a direct impact on people's health in places where malaria was originally not prevalent. Mosquitoes are sensitive to temperature changes and the warming of their environment will boost their rates of production.[24] A fluctuation of two or three degrees is creating exceptional breeding grounds for mosquitoes, for larvae to grow and mature mosquitoes carrying the virus to infect people that have never been exposed before. In communities living in the higher altitudes in Africa and South America, people are at a higher risk for developing malaria because of the increase in the average temperature of the surroundings. This is a severe problem because people in these communities have never been exposed to this disease, causing an increased risk for complications from malaria such as cerebral malaria (a type of malaria that causes mental disability, paralysis and has a high mortality rate) and death by the disease. Residents of these communities are being hit hard by malaria because they are unfamiliar with it; they do not know the signs and symptoms and have little to no immunity.

The population at risk of malaria in the absence of climate change is projected to double between 1990 and 2080 to 8820 million, however; unmitigated climate change would, by the 2080s, further increase the population at risk of malaria by another 257 to 323 million.[25] Therefore, reducing the effects of climate change in the present would reduce the total by about 3.5%, saving tens of thousands of lives worldwide.

African Highlands

Exposures

"The Epidemiologic Triad" is a model that explains the relationship between exposure, transmission, and causation of infectious diseases and it illustrates the shifting malaria transmission rates.[26] With regards to malaria transmission rates in the African Highlands, factors and exposures resulting from drastic environmental changes like warmer climates, shifts in weather patterns, and increases in human impact such as deforestation, provide appropriate conditions for malaria transmission between carrier and host.[27] Because of this, vectors will adapt, thrive, and multiply at a fast pace. An increase in the number of vectors that carry parasites, microbes, and pathogens that cause disease will become a health hazard for the human population.[28] Specifically, malaria is caused by the Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax parasites which are carried by the vector Anopheles mosquito. Even though the Plasmodium vivax parasite can survive in lower temperatures, the Plasmodium falciparum parasite will only survive and replicate in the mosquito when climate temperatures are above 20°C.[29] Increases in humidity and rain also contribute to the replication and survival of this infectious agent.,[30] Increasing global temperatures combined with changes in land cover because of extreme deforestation will create ideal habitats for mosquitoes to survive in the African Highlands. If deforestation continues at its current rate, more land will be available for mosquito breeding grounds, and the population of mosquitos will rapidly increase. The increase in mosquitoes will thus increase the opportunity for both Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax parasites to proliferate.

Exposure to malaria will become a greater risk to humans as the number of female Anopheles mosquitos infected with either the Plasmodium falciparum or Plasmodium vivax parasite increases.[30] The mosquito will transmit the parasite to the human host through a bite, resulting in infection. Then, when an uninfected mosquito bites the infected human host, the parasite will be transmitted to the mosquitoes which will then become exposure to other uninfected human hosts. Individuals who are constantly exposed to the Malaria parasite due to multiple bites by mosquitoes that carry the parasite are at greater risk of dying.[29] Infected humans can also transmit the disease to uninfected or healthy humans via contaminated blood.[29]

Health Effects

The health effects caused by shifts in malaria transmission rates in the African Highlands have the potential to be severe. The effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades.[31] However, Africa, and specifically, the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. In 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred in Africa. Several spatiotemporal models have been studied to assess the potential effect of projected climate scenarios on malaria transmission in Africa. It is expected that the most significant climate change effects are confined to specific regions, including the African Highlands.[32]

Studies show an overall increase in climate suitability for malaria transmission resulting in an increase in the population at risk of contracting the disease.[32] Of significant importance is the increase of epidemic potential at higher altitudes (like the African Highlands). Rising temperatures in these areas have the potential to change normally non-malarial areas to areas with seasonal epidemics.[33] Consequently, new populations will be exposed to the disease resulting in healthy years lost. In addition, the disease burden may be more detrimental to areas that lack the ability and resources to effectively respond to such challenges and stresses.[34]

Prevention

Main article: Malaria § Prevention

The challenges of controlling and possibly eradicating malaria in the African Highlands are many and varied. Many of the strategies used to control malaria have not changed, are few in number and have rarely been added to in the last 20 years.

The most common forms of control are educating the public and vector control. The huge geographic area of the vectors Anopheles is possibly the largest challenge faced in the control of malaria. With such a large area to cover it is hard to use insecticides at a continuous and effective level.[35] This form of control is expensive, and the areas affected are not able to sustain control. Without sustained control, a rapid resurgence in parasite transmission is seen. Another challenge with insecticides is that the vector is becoming insecticide resistant. Mosquitoes have several generations per year so resistance is seen very quickly.[35]

Education has its limitations as well, as the population most affected by malaria are children, and the educational message is to stay inside during peak mosquito activity. The low socioeconomic status of the people who inhabit the African Highlands is also a challenge. Local health facilities have limited resources, and poor living conditions and malnourishment exacerbate malaria symptoms and increase the likelihood of death due to malaria.[35] As climate change shifts geographic areas of transmission to the African Highlands, the challenge will be to find and control the vector in areas that have not seen it before, and to not waste resources on areas where the temperature is no longer conducive to parasite growth.[36]

A number of groups are working on a vaccine—some are looking to control the transmission of the parasite to the host, or control transmission from human back to the vector.[37] These vaccines are not very effective, and lose their effectiveness over time, so are not ideal. But the development is still progressing in the hopes of finding a better, more effective long-lasting vaccine.[37] An alternative to vaccines is vectored immunoprophylaxis (VIP) that is a form a gene therapy. This therapy will change cells in the host that will secrete antigens from various stages of the parasite in the hopes of triggering an anamnestic immune response in the recipient, prevent disease and parasite transmission.[38]

Policy Implications

The policy implications of climate change and malaria rates in the African Highlands fall into two categories:

  1. Enacting policy that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus slowing down climate change, and
  2. Mitigating problems that have already arisen, and will inevitably continue to develop, due to climate change.[39]

Addressing both of these areas is of importance, as those in the poorest countries, including countries that make up the African Highlands, face the greatest burden. Additionally, when countries are forced to contend with a disease like malaria, their prospects for economic growth are slowed. This contributes to continued and worsening global inequality.[40]

When one focuses on mitigation, specifically as it relates to malaria in the African Highlands, research is still an important component. This research needs to take many forms, including attribution studies, to find the degree to which climate change effects malaria rates; scenario modeling, which can help further our understanding of future climate change consequences on malaria rates; and examinations of intervention programs and techniques, to help our understanding of what appropriate responses are.[40] Surveillance and monitoring of malaria in populations in the African Highlands will also be important, to better understand disease.[39]

Policies are required that will significantly increase investments in public health in the African Highlands. This achieves two goals, the first being better outcomes related to malaria in the affected area, and the second being an overall better health environment for populations.[39] It is also important to focus on "one-health approaches."[39] This means collaborating on an interdisciplinary level, across various geographic areas, to come up with workable solutions.

Non-climatic determinants

Sociodemographic factors include, but are not limited to: patterns of human migration and travel, effectiveness of public health and medical infrastructure in controlling and treating disease, the extent of anti-malarial drug resistance and the underlying health status of the population at hand.[41] Environmental factors include: changes in land-use (e.g. deforestation), expansion of agricultural and water development projects (which tend to increase mosquito breeding habitat), and the overall trend towards urbanization (i.e. increased concentration of human hosts). These changes in landscape can alter local weather more than long term climate change.[15] For example, the deforestation and cultivation of natural swamps in the African highlands has created conditions favorable for the survival of mosquito larvae, and has, in part, led to the increasing incidence of malaria.[15] The effects of these non-climatic factors complicate things and make a direct causal relationship between climate change and malaria difficult to confirm. It is highly unlikely that climate exerts an isolated effect.

Dengue fever

Dengue fever is an infectious disease caused by dengue viruses known to be in the tropical regions.[42] It is transmitted by the mosquito Aedes, or A. aegypti.[43] Dengue incidence has increased in the last few decades and is projected to continue to do so with changing climate conditions.[44] Once infected with the dengue virus, humans experience severe flu-like symptoms. Also known as "break-bone fever", dengue can affect infants, children, and adults and can be fatal.[45][46] Dengue fever is spread by the bite of the female mosquito known as Aedes aegypti. The female mosquito is a highly effective vector of this disease.[47] Climate change has created conditions favorable to the spread of the dengue virus. Transmission peaks during the rainy season when mosquitoes breed.[48]

The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported an increase from a thousand to one million confirmed cases between 1955 and 2007.[46] The presence and number of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes is strongly influenced by the amount of water-bearing containers or pockets of stagnant water in an area, daily temperature and variation in temperature, moisture, and solar radiation.[18] While dengue fever is primarily considered a tropical and subtropical disease, the geographic ranges of the Aedes aegypti are expanding. The recent spread of this primary vector of dengue is attributed to globalization, trade, travel, demographic trends, and warming temperatures.[49]

Dengue is ranked as the most important vector-borne viral disease in the world. An estimated 50–100 million dengue fever infections occur annually. In just the past 50 years, transmission has increased drastically with new cases of the disease (incidence) increasing 30-fold.[49] Once localized to a few areas in the tropics, dengue fever is endemic in over 100 countries in Southeast Asia, the Americas, Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, and the Western Pacific with Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific regions being the most seriously affected. The number of reported cases has continually increased along with dengue spreading to new areas. Explosive outbreaks are also occurring. Moreover, a possible threat of outbreak exists in Europe with local transmission of dengue being reported for the first time in France and Croatia in 2010.[50] One country that has seen significant impacts from dengue is Bangladesh.[51]

The cases of dengue fever have increased dramatically since the 1970s and it continues to become more prevalent.[42] The greater incidence of this disease is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and climate change.[52] The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas, and to the emergence of dengue hemorrhagic fever. Four viruses can cause dengue fever exist. If someone is infected with one type of dengue virus, he or she will have permanent immunity to that type of dengue virus but will have short term immunity to the other type of dengue fever.[42] Some of the symptoms of dengue fever are fever, headache, muscle and joint pains and skin rash.[53]

Dengue fever used to be considered a tropical disease, but climate change is causing dengue fever to spread. Dengue fever is transmitted by certain types of mosquitoes, which have been spreading further and further north. This is because some of the climate changes that are occurring are increased heat, precipitation and humidity which create prime breeding grounds for mosquitoes.[54] The hotter and wetter a climate is, the faster the mosquitoes can mature and the faster the disease can develop. Another influence is the changing El Nino effects that are affecting the climate to change in different areas of the world, causing dengue fever to be able to spread.[55]

"Some 1.8 billion (more than 70%) of the population at risk for dengue worldwide live in member states of the WHO South-East Asia Region and Western Pacific Region, which bear nearly 75% of the current global disease burden due to dengue. The Asia Pacific Dengue Strategic Plan for both regions (2008—2015) has been prepared in consultation with member countries and development partners in response to the increasing threat from dengue, which is spreading to new geographical areas and causing high mortality during the early phase of outbreaks. The strategic plan aims to aid countries to reverse the rising trend of dengue by enhancing their preparedness to detect, characterize and contain outbreaks rapidly and to stop the spread to new areas."[56]

Tick borne disease

Tick-borne disease, which affect humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites. A high humidity of greater than 85% is ideal for a tick to start and finish its life cycle.[57] Studies have indicated that temperature and vapor play a significant role in determining the range for tick population. More specifically, maximum temperature has been found to play the most influential variable in sustaining tick populations.[58] Higher temperatures augment both hatching and developmental rates while hindering overall survival. Temperature is so important to overall survival that an average monthly minimum temperature of below -7 °C in the winter can prevent an area from maintaining established populations.[58]

The effect of climate on the tick life cycle is one of the more difficult projections to make in relation to climate and vector-borne disease. Unlike other vectors, tick life cycles span multiple seasons as they mature from larva to nymph to adult.[59] Further, infection and spread of diseases such as Lyme disease happens across the multiple stages and different classes of vertebrate hosts, adding additional variables to consider. Although it is a European species from the Lyme borreliosis spirochetes, Borrelia garinii was documented from infected ticks on seabirds in North America.[60] Further research is needed to improve evolutionary models predicting distributional changes in this tick-borne system in the face of climate change.[61] Infection of ticks happen in the larval/nymph stage (after the first blood meal) when they are exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi (the spirochete responsible for Lyme disease[61]), but transmission to humans doesn't occur until the adult stages.

The expansion of tick populations is concurrent with global climatic change. Species distribution models of recent years indicate that the deer tick, known as I. scapularis, is pushing its distribution to higher latitudes of the Northeastern United States and Canada, as well as pushing and maintaining populations in the South Central and Northern Midwest regions of the United States.[62] Climate models project further expansion of tick habit north into Canada as progressing Northwest from the Northeastern United States. Additionally, however, tick populations are expected to retreat from the Southeastern coast of the U.S., but this has not yet been observed.[63] It's estimated that coinciding with this expansion, increased average temperatures may double tick populations by 2020 as well as bring an earlier start to the tick exposure season.[64][62]

Tick populations are not only spreading wider but moving to higher elevations. In Colorado, the Rocky Mountain wood tick known as D. andersoni is found along the front range and is wont to feed on, and consequently infect, human populations with tularemia (Francisella tularensis), Rocky Mountain spotted fever (Rickettsia rickettsii), and Colorado tick fever (CTF virus). A case study testing climatic interaction affecting tick vector (D. andersoni) populations in Larimer County, Colorado indicated that an estimated increase of 1.2–2.0 °C in summer temperatures would increase tick populations moving 100m upwards in elevation, increasing the range and susceptibility of tick-borne illnesses along the front range.

With regard to the effects of a warming world and the expansion of tick populations to previously unexposed areas, adaptive keys to prevention will include expansion of health care infrastructure and pharmacologic availability, as well as education of people and providers as to the risks of disease and preventive measures they can take.[65]

In the face of these expanding threats, strong collaboration between government officials and environmental scientists is necessary for advancing preventive and reactive response measures. Without acknowledging the climate changes that make environments more habitable for disease carriers, policy and infrastructure will lag behind vector borne disease spread.[66] The human cost associated with denying climate change science is one that concerns many governments. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is conducting a grant program called Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE) which details a 5 step process for combating climate effects like tick borne disease spread.[67] As is the case when responding to other vectors and effects of climate change, vulnerable populations including children and the elderly will need to be prioritized by any intervention.[68] Productive policies in the U.S. and the world need to accurately model changes in vector populations as well as the burden of disease, educate the public on ways to mitigate infection, and prepare health systems for the increasing disease load.[69]

Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease, caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania and transmitted by sandflies; it is distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, wherever the sand fly vector and reservoir hosts are present.[70] The disease can manifest in several ways depending on the infecting species of parasite: in cutaneous leishmaniasis, ulcers develop on the skin leaving stigmatizing scars, while in visceral leishmaniasis parasites invade internal organs and can be fatal if untreated.[71][72] The WHO estimates 12 million people around the world are living with leishmaniasis,[70] and the risk factors for this disease include poverty,[71][73] urbanization,[71] deforestation,[74] and climate change.[71][75]

As in other vector-borne diseases, one of the reasons climate changes can affect the incidence of leishmaniasis is the susceptibility of the sandfly vectors to changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity; these conditions will alter their range of distribution and seasonality.[71] For example, modelling studies have predicted that climate change will increase suitable conditions for Phlebotomus vector species in Central Europe.[76][77] Another model that looked at the distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis, an important visceral leishmaniasis vector, suggested an increased range of this species in the Amazon Basin.[78] A different study model that factored data on climate, policy and socio-economic changes of land use, found that the effects were different for cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, emphasizing the importance of considering each disease and region separately.[79]

Parasite development inside the sandfly can also be affected by temperature changes. For instance, Leishmania peruviana infections were lost during sandfly defecation when the infected vector was kept at higher temperatures, whereas in the same experiment Leishmania infantum and Leishmania braziliensis temperature seemed to make no difference.[80]

Zika virus

Zika virus, a vector-borne virus was first observed in 1947[81] and historically presented in cluster outbreaks in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia.[82] Zika virus epidemics have affected larger populations including Micronesia and South Pacific Islands in 2007, and the Americas in 2013.[83] Brazil has experienced one of the largest outbreaks of Zika virus with approximately 1.5 million cases reported in 2015.[84] Pregnant women infected with Zika virus are at a higher risk of giving birth to children with congenital malformations, including microcephaly.[85] In the context of climate change and temperature rise, it is predicted that Zika virus will affect more than 1.3 billion people by 2050.[86] This is largely due to the expansion of environments conducive to vector growth and life cycles, such as those with temperatures ranging from 23.9 °C to 34 °C.[87] Mosquito behaviors are also affected by the change in temperature including increased breeding and biting rates.[88] Furthermore, extreme climate patterns, including drought, floods and heatwaves are known to exacerbate the proliferation of mosquito breeding ground and as a result, escalate the rate of virus-borne diseases.[89] In addition to Zika virus transmission, mosquito-borne diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever are also predicted to be more prevalent due to climate change.[82]

COVID-19

The United Nations Environment Programme classifies the COVID-19 as zoonotic, meaning the virus jumped from animals to humans. The emergence of zoonotic diseases has been increasing, in part due to climate change and anthropogenic habitat destruction.[90][91][92] Factors contributing to the increased emergence include fluctuations in temperature and humidity, livestock farming, wildlife trade, habitat loss, and environmental degradation.[93][94][95] The United Nations Environment Programme states that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and bio-diverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases."[96]

The head of the World Health Organization, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, in a special video message spoke about the link between the health of the biosphere and prevention of pandemics like the COVID-19 pandemic and highlighted that efforts for improving health will not work without stopping climate change.[97][98] The World Health Organization created a special page dedicated to frequently asked questions about coronavirus and climate change, including the link between climate change and the emergence of new zoonotic diseases. As of 24 November 2020 it summarized the current knowledge about the issue as follows:

There is no evidence of a direct connection between climate change and the emergence or transmission of COVID-19 disease. As the disease is now well established in the human population, efforts should focus on reducing transmission and treating patients.

However, climate change may indirectly affect the COVID-19 response, as it undermines environmental determinants of health, and places additional stress on health systems. Most emerging infectious diseases and almost all recent pandemics, originate in wildlife, and evidence that increasing human pressure on the natural environment may drive disease emergence. Strengthening health systems, improved surveillance of infectious disease in wildlife, livestock and humans, and greater protection of biodiversity and the natural environment, should reduce the risks of future outbreaks of other new diseases."

The page specifically notes that climate change, possibly helps to the spreading of the pandemic, because it lead to water scarcity and water is crucial to different measures needed for stopping the pandemic.[99]

Other studies

A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 by bats.[100] The authors found that climate-driven changes in the distribution and richness of bat species increased the likelihood of bat-borne coronaviruses in the Yunnan province, Myanmar, and Laos.[100] This region was also the habitat of Sunda pangolins and masked palm civits which were suspected as intermediate hosts of COVID-19 between bats and humans.[100] The authors suggest, therefore, that climate change possibly contributed to some extent to the emergence of the pandemic.[100][101]

Climate changed in bat habitats may have also driven them closer to populated areas.[102] Increased aridity and drought periods are predicted to push bats out of their endemic areas and into populated areas.[102] This creates a knock-on effect of increasing their interactions with humans and hence the likelihood of zoonotic disease transfer.[102]

Climate conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic also affected the transferability of the virus.[11] This was partly due to human reactions to extreme weather for example people being more like to socially isolate during heavy rain and therefore less likely to contractive coronavirus from others.[11] Warmer weather may have also created less suitable conditions for COVID-19 to survive and spread virally.[11]

Others

Emergence of new infectious diseases

A concern about the emergence of new diseases from the fungal kingdom. Mammals have endothermy and homeothermy, which allows them to maintain elevated body temperature through life; but it can be defeated if the fungi were to adapt to higher temperatures and survive in the body.[103] Fungi that are pathogenic for insects can be experimentally adapted to replicate at mammalian temperatures through cycles of progressive warming. This demonstrates that fungi are able to adapt rapidly to higher temperatures. The emergence of Candida auris on three continents is proposed to be as a result of global warming and has raised the danger that increased warmth by itself will trigger adaptations on certain microbes to make them pathogenic for humans.[104]

Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, an "emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases" has occurred.[105] Reasons for this are likely multi-causal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the "volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability".[105] Though many infectious diseases are affected by changes in climate, vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and leishmaniasis, present the strongest causal relationship. One major reason that change in climate increases the prevalence of vector borne disease is that temperature and rainfall play a key role in the distribution, magnitude, and viral capacity of mosquitoes, who are primary vectors for many vectors borne diseases. Observation and research detect a shift of pests and pathogens in the distribution away from the equator and towards Earth's poles.[106] A tool that has been used to predict this distribution trend is the Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Process (DyMSiM). DyMSiM uses epidemiological and entomological data and practices to model future mosquito distributions based upon climate conditions and mosquitos living in the area.[107] This modeling technique helps identify the distribution of specific species of mosquito, some of which are more susceptible to viral infection than others.

Viral spillovers

In 2022, a big study dedicated to the link between climate change and Zoonosis was published. The study found a strong link between climate change and the epidemics emergence in the last 15 years as it causes a massive migration of species to new areas, consequently, contacts between different species who had not met each other before. Even in the scenario with weak climatic changes, there will be 15,000 spillovers of viruses to new hosts in the next decades. The areas with the most possibilities to spillover are the mountainous tropical regions of Africa and Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is more vulnerable as it has a large number of bat species that generally do not mix but can do it easily by flying if climate change forces them to migrate.[108][109]

It is projected that interspecies viral sharing, that can lead to novel viral spillovers, will increase due to ongoing climate change-caused geographic range-shifts of mammals (most importantly bats). Risk hotspots would mainly be located at "high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa".[109]

Mosquito transmitted diseases

Environmental changes such as deforestation could increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vectorial capacity of the anopheles.[110] Anopheles mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as, malaria, lymphatic filariasis and viruses that can cause such ailments, like the O'nyong'nyong virus.[110]

Environmental changes, climate variability, and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and disease ecology of Anopheles vectors and their disease transmission potential.[110] Climate change is expected to lead to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases. Global warming projections indicate that surface air warming for a "high scenario" is 4 C, with a likely range of 2.4–6.4 C by 2100.[111] A temperature increase of this size would alter the biology and the ecology of many mosquito vectors and the dynamics of the diseases they transmit such as malaria. Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitos' dwell. When the temperature rises, the larvae take a shorter time to mature[112] and, consequently, a greater capacity to produce more offspring. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria transmission when infected humans are available.

See also

References

  1. ↑ von Csefalvay, Chris (2023), "Host-vector and multihost systems", Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease, Elsevier, pp. 121–149, doi:10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00013-x, ISBN 978-0-323-95389-4, archived from the original on 18 Apr 2023, retrieved 6 Mar 2023
  2. 1 2 3 WHO, WMO, UNEP (2003). "International consensus on the science of climate and health: the IPCC Third Assessment Report". Climate change and human health – risks and responses. Summary (PDF) (Summary of other published book). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. ISBN 9241590815. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 Jun 2020. Retrieved 28 Jun 2020.
  3. 1 2 Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC (2016). "Ch. 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health" (PDF). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program. doi:10.7930/J0VX0DFW. Archived from the original on 11 Jun 2021. Retrieved 28 Jun 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 Sarofim M, Saha S, Hawkins M, Mills D, Hess J, Horton R, et al. (2016). "Ch. 2: Temperature-Related Death and Illness. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment". Climate and Health Assessment. doi:10.7930/j0mg7mdx. Archived from the original on 11 Jun 2021. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  5. 1 2 Fann N, Brennan T, Dolwick P, Gamble J, Ilacqua V, Kolb L, et al. (2016). "Ch. 3: Air Quality Impacts. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment". Climate and Health Assessment. doi:10.7930/j0gq6vp6. Archived from the original on 11 Jun 2021. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  6. ↑ Beard C, Eisen R, Barker C, Garofalo J, Hahn M, Hayden M, et al. (2016). "Ch. 5: Vectorborne Diseases. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment". Climate and Health Assessment. doi:10.7930/j0765c7v. Archived from the original on 11 Jun 2021. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  7. ↑ "Climate Change and Public Health – Disease Vectors | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 9 September 2019. Archived from the original on 1 Jun 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
  8. 1 2 3 Caminade C, McIntyre KM, Jones AE (January 2019). "Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1436 (1): 157–173. Bibcode:2019NYASA1436..157C. doi:10.1111/nyas.13950. PMC 6378404. PMID 30120891.
  9. ↑ Dovjak, Mateja; Kukec, Andreja (2019). "Health Outcomes Related to Built Environments". Creating Healthy and Sustainable Buildings. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. pp. 43–82. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19412-3_2. ISBN 978-3-030-19411-6. S2CID 190160283.
  10. ↑ "Climate impacts have worsened vast range of human diseases". The Guardian. 8 August 2022. Archived from the original on 14 Sep 2022. Retrieved 15 Sep 2022.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Mora C, McKenzie T, Gaw IM, Dean JM, von Hammerstein H, Knudson TA, et al. (September 2022). "Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change". Nature Climate Change. 12 (9): 869–875. Bibcode:2022NatCC..12..869M. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01426-1. PMC 9362357. PMID 35968032.
  12. 1 2 "Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 5 February 2020. Archived from the original on 17 Jul 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  13. 1 2 Christensen J (15 October 2019). "Climate crisis raises risk of more Ebola outbreaks". CNN. Archived from the original on 22 Dec 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  14. ↑ "Ebola and Climate Change: How Are They Connected?". EcoWatch. 14 August 2014. Archived from the original on 31 Mar 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  15. 1 2 3 Patz JA, Olson SH (April 2006). "Malaria risk and temperature: influences from global climate change and local land use practices". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (15): 5635–5636. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.5635P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0601493103. PMC 1458623. PMID 16595623.
  16. ↑ Bhattacharya S, Sharma C, Dhiman R, Mitra A (2006). "Climate Change and Malaria in India". Current Science. 90 (3): 369–375.
  17. ↑ "Nigeria: Duration of the Malaria Transmission Season" (PDF). mara.org.za. MARA/ARMA (Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa / Atlas du Risque de la Malaria en Afrique). July 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 Dec 2005. Retrieved 24 Jan 2007.
  18. 1 2 Patz JA, Campbell-Lendrum D, Holloway T, Foley JA (November 2005). "Impact of regional climate change on human health". Nature. 438 (7066): 310–317. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..310P. doi:10.1038/nature04188. PMID 16292302. S2CID 285589.
  19. 1 2 Rawshan AB, Er A, Raja D, Pereira JJ (2010). "Malaria and Climate Change: Discussion on Economic Impacts". American Journal of Environmental Sciences. 7 (1): 65–74. doi:10.3844/ajessp.2011.73.82.
  20. ↑ Greenwood BM, Bojang K, Whitty CJ, Targett GA (23 April 2005). "Malaria". Lancet. 365 (9469): 1487–1498. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66420-3. PMID 15850634. S2CID 208987634.
  21. ↑ "10 facts on malaria". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 30 Jun 2019. Retrieved 2 Dec 2016.
  22. ↑ Githeko AK. Malaria and climate change (PDF). Commonwealth Health Ministers' Update 2009/2010 (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 Feb 2015. Retrieved 14 Feb 2015.
  23. ↑ Pates H, Curtis C (2005). "Mosquito behavior and vector control". Annual Review of Entomology. 50 (1): 53–70. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130439. PMID 15355233.
  24. ↑ Epstein PR (October 2005). "Climate change and human health". The New England Journal of Medicine. 353 (14): 1433–1436. doi:10.1056/nejmp058079. PMC 2636266. PMID 16207843.
  25. ↑ Goklany IM (October 2004). "Climate change and malaria". Science (Submitted manuscript). 306 (5693): 55–57. doi:10.1126/science.306.5693.55. PMID 15459370. S2CID 29125732. Archived from the original on 16 Dec 2019. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  26. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Lesson 1: Introduction to Epidemiology. Retrieved 26 March 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson1/section8.html Archived 7 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ↑ Himeidan YE, Kweka EJ (2012). "Malaria in East African highlands during the past 30 years: impact of environmental changes". Frontiers in Physiology. 3: 315. doi:10.3389/fphys.2012.00315. PMC 3429085. PMID 22934065.
  28. ↑ Beard, C. B., Eisen, R. J., Barker, C. M., Garofalo, J. F., Hahn, M., Hayden, M., . . . Schramm, P. J. (2016). Vector-Borne Diseases. Retrieved 15 February 2017, from https://health2016.globalchange.gov/vectorborne-diseases
  29. 1 2 3 "Where Malaria Occurs". Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 14 November 2018. Archived from the original on 15 Aug 2020. Retrieved 27 Feb 2020.
  30. 1 2 "Climate Change and Vector-Borne Disease". Center for Science Education. 2011. Archived from the original on 20 Dec 2019. Retrieved 27 Feb 2020.
  31. ↑ Costello A, Abbas M, Allen A, Ball S, Bell S, Bellamy R, et al. (May 2009). "Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission". Lancet. 373 (9676): 1693–1733. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1. PMID 19447250. S2CID 205954939.
  32. 1 2 Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, et al. (March 2014). "Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (9): 3286–3291. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.3286C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302089111. PMC 3948226. PMID 24596427.
  33. ↑ Martens WJ, Niessen LW, Rotmans J, Jetten TH, McMichael AJ (May 1995). "Potential impact of global climate change on malaria risk". Environmental Health Perspectives. 103 (5): 458–64. doi:10.1289/ehp.95103458. PMC 1523278. PMID 7656875.
  34. ↑ Wu X, Lu Y, Zhou S, Chen L, Xu B (January 2016). "Impact of climate change on human infectious diseases: Empirical evidence and human adaptation". Environment International. 86: 14–23. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2015.09.007. PMID 26479830.
  35. 1 2 3 Osungbade KO, Oladunjoye OO (2012). "Prevention of congenital transmission of malaria in sub-saharan african countries: challenges and implications for health system strengthening". Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2012: 648456. doi:10.1155/2012/648456. PMC 3179872. PMID 21961019.
  36. ↑ Tanser FC, Sharp B, le Sueur D (November 2003). "Potential effect of climate change on malaria transmission in Africa". Lancet. 362 (9398): 1792–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14898-2. PMID 14654317. S2CID 22850163.
  37. 1 2 Nunes JK, Woods C, Carter T, Raphael T, Morin MJ, Diallo D, et al. (September 2014). "Development of a transmission-blocking malaria vaccine: progress, challenges, and the path forward". Vaccine. 32 (43): 5531–5539. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.07.030. PMID 25077422.
  38. ↑ Rodrigues MM, Soares IS (November 2014). "Gene-therapy for malaria prevention". Trends in Parasitology. 30 (11): 511–3. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2014.09.005. PMID 25444237.
  39. 1 2 3 4 Watts N, Adger WN, Agnolucci P, Blackstock J, Byass P, Cai W, et al. (November 2015). "Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health". Lancet. 386 (10006): 1861–1914. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6. hdl:10871/17695. PMID 26111439. S2CID 205979317.
  40. 1 2 Campbell-Lendrum D, Manga L, Bagayoko M, Sommerfeld J (April 2015). "Climate change and vector-borne diseases: what are the implications for public health research and policy?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 370 (1665): 20130552. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0552. PMC 4342958. PMID 25688013.
  41. ↑ Patz J, Githeko AK, McCarty JP, Hussein S, Confalonieri U, de Wet N (2003). McMichael A, Campbell-Lendrum D, Corvalan C, Ebi K, Githeko A, Scheraga J, Woodward A (eds.). "Climate Change and Infectious Diseases". Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses.
  42. 1 2 3 "Dengue and Severe Dengue, Fact Sheet". Media Centre. World Health Organization. 2012. Archived from the original on 2 Sep 2016. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  43. ↑ Simmons CP, Farrar JJ, Nguyen V, Wills B (April 2012). "Dengue". The New England Journal of Medicine. 366 (15): 1423–1432. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1110265. hdl:11343/191104. PMID 22494122.
  44. ↑ Banu, S., Wenbiao H., Yuming G., Hurst, C., & Tong, S.(2014). "Projecting the Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in Dhaka, Bangladesh". Environment International (63): 137–142. DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.11.002
  45. ↑ "WHO | The human". WHO. Archived from the original on 12 Mar 2014. Retrieved 25 Jul 2019.
  46. 1 2 "Dengue and severe dengue". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 28 Feb 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  47. ↑ "WHO | Dengue/Severe dengue frequently asked questions". WHO. Archived from the original on 25 Oct 2012. Retrieved 25 Jul 2019.
  48. ↑ Nery MC (11 June 2019). "Dengue increase likely during rainy season: WHO warns". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 8 Mar 2021. Retrieved 24 Feb 2021.
  49. 1 2 Ebi KL, Nealon J (November 2016). "Dengue in a changing climate". Environmental Research. 151: 115–123. Bibcode:2016ER....151..115E. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.026. PMID 27475051.
  50. ↑ World Health Organization. (n.d.) Neglected tropical diseases: dengue. Retrieved from: Dengue Fact Sheet
  51. ↑ Rahman A (2008). "Climate Change and its Impact on health in Bangladesh" (PDF). Regional Health Forum. 12: 16–26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 Apr 2021. Retrieved 30 Apr 2021.
  52. ↑ Gubler DJ (2010). "Human and Medical Virology: Dengue Viruses". In Mahy BW, van Regenmortel MH (eds.). Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology. Academic Press. pp. 372–382. ISBN 978-0-12-378559-6. Archived from the original on 12 Jan 2023. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  53. ↑ "Dengue Fever". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 19 Nov 2012. Retrieved 24 Nov 2012.
  54. ↑ Epstein PR, Ferber D (2011). Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and what We Can Do about it. University of California Press. pp. 69–71. ISBN 978-0-520-26909-5.
  55. ↑ Hopp MJ, Foley JA (February 2001). "Global-Scale Relationships Between Climate and the Dengue Fever Vector, Aedes Aegypti". Climatic Change. 48 (2/3): 441–463. doi:10.1023/a:1010717502442. S2CID 150524898.
  56. ↑ "Dengue: Guidelines for Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 Apr 2022. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  57. ↑ Süss J, Klaus C, Gerstengarbe FW, Werner PC (1 January 2008). "What makes ticks tick? Climate change, ticks, and tick-borne diseases". Journal of Travel Medicine. 15 (1): 39–45. doi:10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x. PMID 18217868.
  58. 1 2 Brownstein JS, Holford TR, Fish D (July 2003). "A climate-based model predicts the spatial distribution of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in the United States". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (9): 1152–1157. doi:10.1289/ehp.6052. PMC 1241567. PMID 12842766.
  59. ↑ USGCRP. "Life Cycle of Blacklegged Ticks, Ixodes scapularis | Climate and Health Assessment". health2016.globalchange.gov. Archived from the original on 30 Oct 2018. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.
  60. ↑ Munro HJ, Ogden NH, Mechai S, Lindsay LR, Robertson GJ, Whitney H, Lang AS (October 2019). "Genetic diversity of Borrelia garinii from Ixodes uriae collected in seabird colonies of the northwestern Atlantic Ocean". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 10 (6): 101255. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.06.014. PMID 31280947. S2CID 195829855.
  61. 1 2 Wolcott KA, Margos G, Fingerle V, Becker NS (September 2021). "Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 12 (5): 101766. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101766. PMID 34161868.
  62. 1 2 Esteve-Gassent MD, Castro-Arellano I, Feria-Arroyo TP, Patino R, Li AY, Medina RF, et al. (May 2016). "Translating ecology, physiology, biochemistry, and population genetics research to meet the challenge of tick and tick-borne diseases in North America". Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology. 92 (1): 38–64. doi:10.1002/arch.21327. PMC 4844827. PMID 27062414.
  63. ↑ Luber G, Lemery J (2 November 2015). Global Climate Change and Human Health: From Science to Practice. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-50557-1. Archived from the original on 30 Jun 2023. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  64. ↑ Monaghan AJ, Moore SM, Sampson KM, Beard CB, Eisen RJ (July 2015). "Climate change influences on the annual onset of Lyme disease in the United States". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 6 (5): 615–622. Bibcode:2015AGUFMGC13L..07M. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.05.005. PMC 4631020. PMID 26025268.
  65. ↑ Mimura N, Pulwarty R, Duc DM, Elshinnawy I, Redsteer M, Huang H, et al. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability (PDF). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–898. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  66. ↑ "As disease-bearing ticks head north, weak government response threatens public health". Center for Public Integrity. Archived from the original on 30 Oct 2018. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.
  67. ↑ "CDC – Climate and Health – CDC's Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE) Framework". National Center for Environmental Health. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 30 Oct 2018. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.
  68. ↑ "State's Reluctance to Address Climate and Tick Link May Threaten Public Health". Natural Resources Council of Maine. 12 August 2018. Archived from the original on 30 Jun 2023. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.
  69. ↑ Borchers A, Pieler T (November 2010). "Programming pluripotent precursor cells derived from Xenopus embryos to generate specific tissues and organs". Genes. 1 (3): 413–426. Bibcode:2017RemS....9..609C. doi:10.3390/rs9060609. PMC 3966229. PMID 24710095.
  70. 1 2 "Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases – Leishmaniasis". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 18 Jul 2004. Retrieved 25 Nov 2020.
  71. 1 2 3 4 5 "Leishmaniasis". World Health Organization. March 2020. Archived from the original on 26 Jul 2019. Retrieved 25 Nov 2020.
  72. ↑ Burza S, Croft SL, Boelaert M (September 2018). "Leishmaniasis". Lancet. 392 (10151): 951–970. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31204-2. PMID 30126638. S2CID 208790410.
  73. ↑ Alvar J, Yactayo S, Bern C (December 2006). "Leishmaniasis and poverty". Trends in Parasitology. 22 (12): 552–557. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2006.09.004. PMID 17023215.
  74. ↑ Rodrigues MG, Sousa JD, Dias ÁL, Monteiro WM, Sampaio VS (March 2019). "The role of deforestation on American cutaneous leishmaniasis incidence: spatial-temporal distribution, environmental and socioeconomic factors associated in the Brazilian Amazon". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 24 (3): 348–355. doi:10.1111/tmi.13196. PMID 30578585. S2CID 58488789.
  75. ↑ González C, Wang O, Strutz SE, González-Salazar C, Sánchez-Cordero V, Sarkar S (January 2010). "Climate change and risk of leishmaniasis in north america: predictions from ecological niche models of vector and reservoir species". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 4 (1): e585. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000585. PMC 2799657. PMID 20098495.
  76. ↑ Fischer D, Moeller P, Thomas SM, Naucke TJ, Beierkuhnlein C (November 2011). "Combining climatic projections and dispersal ability: a method for estimating the responses of sandfly vector species to climate change". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 5 (11): e1407. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001407. PMC 3226457. PMID 22140590.
  77. ↑ Koch LK, Kochmann J, Klimpel S, Cunze S (October 2017). "Modeling the climatic suitability of leishmaniasis vector species in Europe". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 13325. Bibcode:2017NatSR...713325K. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13822-1. PMC 5645347. PMID 29042642.
  78. ↑ Peterson AT, Campbell LP, Moo-Llanes DA, Travi B, González C, Ferro MC, et al. (September 2017). "Influences of climate change on the potential distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis sensu lato (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae)". International Journal for Parasitology. 47 (10–11): 667–674. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.04.007. PMID 28668326.
  79. ↑ Purse BV, Masante D, Golding N, Pigott D, Day JC, Ibañez-Bernal S, et al. (2017). "How will climate change pathways and mitigation options alter incidence of vector-borne diseases? A framework for leishmaniasis in South and Meso-America". PLOS ONE. 12 (10): e0183583. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1283583P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183583. PMC 5636069. PMID 29020041.
  80. ↑ Hlavacova J, Votypka J, Volf P (September 2013). "The effect of temperature on Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) development in sand flies". Journal of Medical Entomology. 50 (5): 955–958. doi:10.1603/ME13053. PMID 24180098.
  81. ↑ Agumadu VC, Ramphul K (July 2018). "Zika Virus: A Review of Literature". Cureus. 10 (7): e3025. doi:10.7759/cureus.3025. PMC 6150742. PMID 30254814.
  82. 1 2 Plourde AR, Bloch EM (July 2016). "A Literature Review of Zika Virus". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22 (7): 1185–1192. doi:10.3201/eid2207.151990. PMC 4918175. PMID 27070380.
  83. ↑ Zhang Q, Sun K, Chinazzi M, Pastore Y, Piontti A, Dean NE, et al. (May 2017). "Spread of Zika virus in the Americas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (22): E4334–E4343. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E4334Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.1620161114. PMC 5465916. PMID 28442561.
  84. ↑ Moghadam SR, Bayrami S, Moghadam SJ, Golrokhi R, Pahlaviani FG, SeyedAlinaghi S (1 December 2016). "Zika virus: A review of literature". Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 6 (12): 989–994. doi:10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.09.007. ISSN 2221-1691. S2CID 79313409. Archived from the original on 27 Jan 2023. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  85. ↑ "Zika virus". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 26 Jan 2023. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
  86. ↑ "Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050". CEID. 11 March 2021. Archived from the original on 27 Jan 2023. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
  87. ↑ "Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050". CEID. 11 March 2021. Archived from the original on 27 Jan 2023. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
  88. ↑ Epstein PR (October 2005). "Climate change and human health". The New England Journal of Medicine. 353 (14): 1433–1436. doi:10.1056/NEJMp058079. PMID 16207843.
  89. ↑ "Explainer: How climate change is amplifying mosquito-borne diseases". World Mosquito Program. Archived from the original on 27 Jan 2023. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
  90. ↑ "A message from nature: coronavirus". United Nations Environment Programme. 3 April 2020. Archived from the original on 6 Nov 2020. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
  91. ↑ "How nature can protect us from pandemics". United Nations Environment Programme. 24 April 2020. Archived from the original on 5 Oct 2020. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
  92. ↑ "COVID-19 updates from the United Nations Environment Programme". United Nations Environment Programme. Archived from the original on 4 Sep 2020. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
  93. ↑ "Coronavirus: Fear over rise in animal-to-human diseases". BBC. 6 July 2020. Archived from the original on 7 Jul 2020. Retrieved 7 Jul 2020.
  94. ↑ "Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission". United Nations Environmental Programm. United Nations. 15 May 2020. Archived from the original on 6 Jul 2020. Retrieved 7 Jul 2020.
  95. ↑ Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies (PDF). Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. 2021. pp. 5, 15, 26, 35, 93–95, 110, 128. ISBN 978-92-807-3837-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 Apr 2021. Retrieved 16 Apr 2021.
  96. ↑ "Science points to causes of COVID-19". United Nations Environmental Programm. United Nations. 22 May 2020. Archived from the original on 25 Jun 2021. Retrieved 2 Jun 2020.
  97. ↑ "Covid-19 pandemic will not be the last: WHO chief". France24. AFP. 26 December 2020. Archived from the original on 30 Jan 2021. Retrieved 21 Feb 2021.
  98. ↑ Sou-Jie Van Brunnersum, Melissa (26 December 2020). "COVID-19 will not be last pandemic: WHO". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 3 Feb 2021. Retrieved 21 Feb 2021.
  99. ↑ "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Climate change". World Health Organization. World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 21 Nov 2020. Retrieved 24 Nov 2020.
  100. 1 2 3 4 Beyer RM, Manica A, Mora C (May 2021). "Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2". The Science of the Total Environment. 767: 145413. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.767n5413B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413. PMC 7837611. PMID 33558040.
  101. ↑ Bressan D. "Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak". Forbes. Archived from the original on 8 Feb 2021. Retrieved 9 Feb 2021.
  102. 1 2 3 Gudipati S, Zervos M, Herc E (September 2020). "Can the One Health Approach Save Us from the Emergence and Reemergence of Infectious Pathogens in the Era of Climate Change: Implications for Antimicrobial Resistance?". Antibiotics. 9 (9): 599. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9090599. PMC 7557833. PMID 32937739.
  103. ↑ Casadevall A (February 2020). "Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 130 (2): 553–555. doi:10.1172/JCI135003. PMC 6994111. PMID 31904588.
  104. ↑ Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, Farooqi J, Chowdhary A, Govender NP, et al. (January 2017). "Simultaneous Emergence of Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris on 3 Continents Confirmed by Whole-Genome Sequencing and Epidemiological Analyses". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 64 (2): 134–140. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw691. PMC 5215215. PMID 27988485.
  105. 1 2 Epstein PR (July 2002). "Climate change and infectious disease: stormy weather ahead?". Epidemiology. 13 (4): 373–375. doi:10.1097/00001648-200207000-00001. PMID 12094088. S2CID 19299458.
  106. ↑ Bebber DP, Ramotowski MA, Gurr SJ (2013). "Crop pests and pathogens move polewards in a warming world". Nature Climate Change. 3 (11): 985–988. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..985B. doi:10.1038/nclimate1990.
  107. ↑ Butterworth MK, Morin CW, Comrie AC (April 2017). "An Analysis of the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in the Southeastern United States". Environmental Health Perspectives. 125 (4): 579–585. doi:10.1289/EHP218. PMC 5381975. PMID 27713106.
  108. ↑ Yong E (28 April 2022). "We Created the 'Pandemicene'". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 6 May 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  109. 1 2 Carlson, Colin J.; Albery, Gregory F.; Merow, Cory; Trisos, Christopher H.; Zipfel, Casey M.; Eskew, Evan A.; Olival, Kevin J.; Ross, Noam; Bansal, Shweta (28 April 2022). "Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk". Nature. 607 (7919): 555–562. Bibcode:2022Natur.607..555C. bioRxiv 10.1101/2020.01.24.918755. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w. PMID 35483403. S2CID 248430532.
  110. 1 2 3 Afrane YA, Githeko AK, Yan G (February 2012). "The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1249 (1): 204–210. Bibcode:2012NYASA1249..204A. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06432.x. PMC 3767301. PMID 22320421.
  111. ↑ IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 5 Oct 2018. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
  112. ↑ Munga S, Minakawa N, Zhou G, Githeko AK, Yan G (September 2007). "Survivorship of immature stages of Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in natural habitats in western Kenya highlands". Journal of Medical Entomology. 44 (5): 758–764. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[758:SOISOA]2.0.CO;2. PMID 17915505. S2CID 10278388. Archived from the original on 30 Jun 2023. Retrieved 3 Jun 2023.
This article is issued from Offline. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.