Open-mid back unrounded vowel

The open-mid back unrounded vowel or low-mid back unrounded vowel[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʌ⟩, graphically a rotated lowercase "v" (called a turned V but created as a small-capital ⟨ᴀ⟩ without the crossbar), even though some vendors display it as a real turned v. Both the symbol and the sound are commonly referred to as a "wedge", "caret" or "hat". In transcriptions for English, this symbol is commonly used for the near-open central unrounded vowel and in transcriptions for Danish, it is used for the open back rounded vowel.

Open-mid back unrounded vowel
ʌ
IPA Number314
Audio sample
source · help
Encoding
Entity (decimal)ʌ
Unicode (hex)U+028C
X-SAMPAV
Braille⠬ (braille pattern dots-346)

Features

Occurrence
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Ajië[2] kë [kʌˀ] 'pot' Distinct from /ə/
Catalan Solsonès[3] tarda [ˈtaɾð̞ʌ̃ː] 'afternoon' Realization of final unstressed /ə/
Emilian-Romagnol[4] most Emilian dialects Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲːɐ] 'Bologna' It corresponds to a sound between /ɔ/ to /ä/; written ò in some spellings
EnglishCape Town[5]lot[lʌt]'lot'It corresponds to a weakly rounded [ɒ̈] in all other South African dialects. See South African English phonology
Natal[5]
Cardiff[6]thought[θʌːt]'thought'For some speakers it may be rounded and closer. See English phonology
General South African[7]no[nʌː]'no'May be a diphthong [ʌʊ̯] instead.[8] See South African English phonology
General American[9]gut[ɡʌt]ⓘ'gut'In some dialects, fronted to [ɜ], or fronted and lowered to [ɐ]. See English phonology and Northern Cities Vowel Shift
Inland Northern American[10]
Multicultural London[11]
Newfoundland[12]
Northern East Anglian[13]
Philadelphia[14]
Scottish[15]
Some Estuary English speakers[16]
FrenchPicardy[17]alors[aˈlʌʀ̥]'so'Corresponding to /ɔ/ in standard French.
GermanChemnitz dialect[18]machen[ˈmʌχɴ̩]'to do'Allophone of /ʌ, ʌː/ (which phonetically are central [ɜ, ɜː])[19] before and after /ŋ, kʰ, k, χ, ʁ/. Exact backness varies; it is most posterior before /χ, ʁ/.[20]
Haida[21]ḵwaáay[qʷʰʌʔáːj]'the rock'Allophone of /a/ (sometimes also /aː/) after uvular and epiglottal consonants.[22]
IrishUlster dialect[23]ola[ʌl̪ˠə]'oil'See Irish phonology
Kaingang[24][ˈɾʌ]'mark'Varies between back [ʌ] and central [ɜ].[25]
Kashmiri از [ʌz] 'today' Allophone of [ɐ]. Used only in monosyllables. Typical of the Srinagar variety.
Kensiu[26][hʌʎ]'stream'
Korean[27]너 / neo[nʌ̹]'you'See Korean phonology
LillooetRetracted counterpart of /ə/.
Mah Meri[28]Allophone of /ə/; can be mid central [ə] or close-mid back [ɤ] instead.[28]
Nepaliअसल/asal[ʌsʌl]'good'See Nepali phonology
Oʼodham Pima corresponds to [ɨ] in Papago.
PortugueseGreater Lisbon area[29]leite[ˈɫ̪ʌjt̪ɨ̞]'milk'Allophone of /ɐ/ before a non-syllabic /i/. Corresponds to [e] in other accents.[29] See Portuguese phonology
RussianStandard Saint Petersburg[30]голова/golová[ɡəɫ̪ʌˈvä]'head'Corresponds to [ɐ] in standard Moscow pronunciation;[30] occurs mostly immediately before stressed syllables. See Russian phonology
Tamil[31]Nasalized. Phonetic realization of the sequence /am/, may be [õ] or [ã] instead.[31] See Tamil phonology
Xavante[32] [jʌm] 'seed' The nasal version [ʌ̃] also occurs.[32]

Before World War II, the /ʌ/ of Received Pronunciation was phonetically close to a back vowel [ʌ], which has since shifted forward towards [ɐ] (a near-open central unrounded vowel). Daniel Jones reported his speech (southern British) as having an advanced back vowel [ʌ̟] between his central /ə/ and back /ɔ/; however, he also reported that other southern speakers had a lower and even more advanced vowel that approached cardinal [a].[33] In American English varieties, such as in the West, the Midwest, and the urban South, the typical phonetic realization of the phoneme /ʌ/ is an open-mid central [ɜ].[34][35] Truly backed variants of /ʌ/ that are phonetically [ʌ] can occur in Inland Northern American English, Newfoundland English, Philadelphia English, some of African-American English, and (old-fashioned) white Southern American English in coastal plain and Piedmont areas.[36][37] However, the letter ⟨ʌ⟩ is still commonly used to indicate this phoneme, even in the more common varieties with central variants [ɐ] or [ɜ]. That may be because of both tradition and some other dialects retaining the older pronunciation.[38]

Notes
  1. While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
  2. Zetterberg, William. "So close and yet so different: Reconstructing the phonological history of three Southern New Caledonian languages | Lund University". Lund University. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  3. "Anàlisi dialectològica d'uns parlars del Solsonès". prezi.com. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
  4. "Scrîver al bulgnaiṡ cum và". bulgnais.com (in Emilian). Archived from the original on 2020-10-26. Retrieved 2020-04-21.
  5. Lass (2002), p. 115.
  6. Collins & Mees (1990), p. 95.
  7. Wells (1982), pp. 614, 621.
  8. Wells (1982), p. 614.
  9. Wells (1982), p. 485.
  10. W. Labov, S. Ash and C. Boberg (1997), A national map of the regional dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved May 27, 2013
  11. Cruttenden (2014), p. 91.
  12. Thomas (2001), pp. 27–28, 61–63.
  13. Trudgill (2004), p. 167.
  14. Thomas (2001), pp. 27–28, 73–74.
  15. Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
  16. Altendorf & Watt (2004), p. 188.
  17. "Picardie : phonétique". Retrieved 29 January 2015.
  18. Khan & Weise (2013), pp. 235, 238.
  19. Khan & Weise (2013), p. 236.
  20. Khan & Weise (2013), p. 238.
  21. Lawrence (1977), pp. 32–33.
  22. Lawrence (1977), pp. 32–33, 36.
  23. Ní Chasaide (1999), pp. 114–115.
  24. Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676–677, 682.
  25. Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676, 682.
  26. Bishop (1996), p. 230.
  27. Lee (1999).
  28. Kruspe & Hajek (2009), p. 245.
  29. Cruz-Ferreira (1995), pp. 91–2.
  30. Yanushevskaya & Bunčić (2015), p. 225.
  31. Keane (2004), p. 114.
  32. Nikulin & Carvalho (2019), p. 263.
  33. Jones (1972), pp. 86–88.
  34. Gordon (2004b), p. 340.
  35. Tillery & Bailey (2004), p. 333.
  36. Thomas (2001), pp. 27–28, 112–115, 121, 134, 174.
  37. Gordon (2004a), pp. 294–296.
  38. Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 135.

References
  • Altendorf, Ulrike; Watt, Dominic (2004). "The dialects in the South of England: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 181–196. ISBN 3-11-017532-0.
  • Bishop, Nancy (1996). "A preliminary description of Kensiu (Maniq) phonology" (PDF). Mon–Khmer Studies Journal. 25: 227–253.
  • Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990). "The phonetics of Cardiff English". In Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.). English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change. Multilingual Matters. pp. 87–103. ISBN 1-85359-032-0.
  • Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781444183092.
  • Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995). "European Portuguese". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 25 (2): 90–94. doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223. S2CID 249414876.
  • Gordon, Matthew (2004a). "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities". In Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 294–296. ISBN 3-11-017532-0.
  • Gordon, Matthew (2004b), "The West and Midwest: Phonology", in Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Walter de Gruyter, p. 340, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
  • Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2009). "Fonologia e prosódia do Kaingáng falado em Cacique Doble" [Phonology and prosody of Kaingang spoken in Cacique Doble]. Anais do SETA (in Portuguese). Campinas: Editora do IEL-UNICAMP. 3: 675–685.
  • Jones, Daniel (1972). An Outline of English Phonetics (9th ed.). Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons.
  • Keane, Elinor (2004). "Tamil". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 34 (1): 111–116. doi:10.1017/S0025100304001549.
  • Khan, Sameer ud Dowla; Weise, Constanze (2013). "Upper Saxon (Chemnitz dialect)" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 43 (2): 231–241. doi:10.1017/S0025100313000145.
  • Kruspe, Nicole; Hajek, John (2009). "Mah Meri". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 39 (2): 241–248. doi:10.1017/S0025100309003946.
  • Lass, Roger (2002). "South African English". In Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.). Language in South Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521791052.
  • Lawrence, Erma (1977). Haida Dictionary. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.
  • Lee, Hyun Bok (1999). "Korean". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press. pp. 120–122. ISBN 0-521-63751-1.
  • Ní Chasaide, Ailbhe (1999). "Irish". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press. pp. 111–116. ISBN 0-521-63751-1.
  • Roca, Iggy; Johnson, Wyn (1999). Course in Phonology. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Scobbie, James M.; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006), Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: An Overview, Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers
  • Thomas, Erik R. (2001). "An acoustic analysis of vowel variation in New World English". Publication of the American Dialect Society. Duke University Press for the American Dialect Society. 85.
  • Tillery, Jan; Bailey, Guy (2004). "The urban south: Phonology". In Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Walter de Gruyter. p. 333. ISBN 3-11-017532-0.
  • Trudgill, Peter (2004). "The dialect of East Anglia: Phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 163–177. ISBN 3-11-017532-0.
  • Wells, J.C. (1982). Accents of English 3: Beyond the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28541-0.
  • Yanushevskaya, Irena; Bunčić, Daniel (2015). "Russian". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 45 (2): 221–228. doi:10.1017/S0025100314000395.
  • Nikulin, Andrey; Carvalho, Fernando O. de (2019). "Estudos diacrônicos de línguas indígenas brasileiras: um panorama". Macabéa - Revista Eletrônica do NETLLI (in Brazilian Portuguese). Crato. 8 (2). doi:10.47295/MREN.V8I2.1910.
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