Near-close near-back rounded vowel
The near-close near-back rounded vowel, or near-high near-back rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The IPA symbol that represents this sound is ⟨ʊ⟩. It is informally called "horseshoe u". Prior to 1989, there was an alternative IPA symbol for this sound, ⟨ɷ⟩, called "closed omega"; use of this symbol is no longer sanctioned by the IPA.[2] In Americanist phonetic notation, the symbol ⟨ᴜ⟩ (a small capital U) is used. Sometimes, especially in broad transcription, this vowel is transcribed with a simpler symbol ⟨u⟩, which technically represents the close back rounded vowel.
| Near-close near-back rounded vowel | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ʊ | |||
| IPA Number | 321 | ||
| Audio sample | |||
|
source · help | |||
| Encoding | |||
| Entity (decimal) | ʊ | ||
| Unicode (hex) | U+028A | ||
| X-SAMPA | U | ||
| Braille |  | ||
| |||
| IPA: Vowels | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Legend: unrounded • rounded |
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association defines [ʊ] as a mid-centralized (lowered and centralized) close back rounded vowel (transcribed [u̽] or [ü̞]), and the current official IPA name of the vowel transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ is near-close near-back rounded vowel.[3] However, some languages have the close-mid near-back rounded vowel, a vowel that is somewhat lower than the canonical value of [ʊ], though it still fits the definition of a mid-centralized [u]. It occurs in some dialects of English (such as General American and Geordie)[4][5] as well as some other languages (such as Maastrichtian Limburgish).[6] It can be transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ̞⟩ (a lowered ⟨ʊ⟩) in narrow transcription. For the close-mid (near-)back rounded vowel that is not usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ (or ⟨u⟩), see close-mid back rounded vowel.
In some other languages (such as Bengali and Luxembourgish)[7][8] as well as some dialects of English (such as Scottish)[9][10] there is a fully back near-close rounded vowel (a sound between cardinal [u] and [o]), which can be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ʊ̠⟩, ⟨u̞⟩ or ⟨o̝⟩. There may be phonological reasons not to use the /u/-based symbol, as it may incorrectly imply a relation to the fully close [u]. It also implies too weak a rounding in some cases (specifically in the case of the vowels that are described as tense in Germanic languages, which are typically transcribed with ⟨oː⟩), which would have to be specified as ⟨ʊ̹˗⟩ anyway.
Near-close back protruded vowel
The near-close back protruded vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨ʊ⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. As there is no dedicated diacritic for protrusion in the IPA, symbol for the near-close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨ ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨ʊ̫⟩ for the near-close back protruded vowel. Another possible transcription is ⟨ʊʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯ̽ʷ⟩ (a near-close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but this could be misread as a diphthong.
The close-mid near-back protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨ʊ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨ʊ̫˕⟩, whereas the fully back near-close protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨u̞ʷ⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨u̫˕⟩.
Features
- Its vowel height is near-close, also known as near-high, which means the tongue is not quite so constricted as a close vowel (high vowel).
- Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. The prototypical [ʊ] is somewhat further front (near-back) than the neighboring cardinal vowels.
- Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed. The prototypical [ʊ] has a weak protruded rounding, more like [ɔ] than the neighboring cardinal vowels.
Occurrence
Because back rounded vowels are assumed to have protrusion, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some of the following may actually have compression. In the table below, vowels transcribed with ⟨o̝⟩ have a considerably stronger rounding than the prototypical value of ⟨ʊ⟩.
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Standard[11] | Botha | [ˈbʊ̞ˑta] | 'Botha' | Close-mid. Allophone of /ʊə/ in less stressed words, in stressed syllables of polysyllabic words and word-finally when unstressed. In the second case, it is in free variation with the diphthongal realization [ʊə̯ ~ ʊ̯ə ~ ʊə].[11] See Afrikaans phonology |
| Arabic | Hejazi | قُلْت/gult | [gʊlt] | 'I said' | Allophone of /u/ in medial and initial positions. See Hejazi phonology |
| Assamese[12] | কোৰ/kûr | [kʊɹ] | 'hoe' | Close-mid;[12] also described as open [ɒ].[13] | |
| Bengali[7] | তুমি/tumī | [ˈt̪u̞ˌmiː] | 'you' | Fully back;[7] typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩. See Bengali phonology | |
| Burmese[14] | မွတ်/mā | [mʊʔ] | 'smooth' | Allophone of /u/ in syllables closed by a glottal stop and when nasalized.[14] | |
| Chinese | Mandarin[15] | 红 / hóng | ⓘ | 'red' | Fully back; height varies between mid and close depending on the speaker. See Standard Chinese phonology |
| Shanghainese[16] | 瓜/kù | [kʊ¹] | 'melon' | The height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back compressed vowel.[16] | |
| Danish | Standard[17] | mave | [ˈmɛːʊ] | 'stomach' | Phonetic realization of the sequence /və/.[17] See Danish phonology |
| Dutch | Standard Northern[18] | oren | [ˈʊːrə(n)] | 'ears' | Allophone of /oː/ before /r/. Can be a centering diphthong [ʊə] instead, especially before coda /r/. See Dutch phonology |
| Randstad[18] | |||||
| Some speakers[19] | hok | [ɦʊk] | 'den' | Contrasts with /ɔ/ in certain words, but many speakers have only one vowel /ɔ/.[19] See Dutch phonology | |
| English | Irish[20] | hook | [hʊk] | 'hook' | |
| Welsh[21][22] | In Cardiff, it is advanced and lowered to [ɵ], often also with unrounding to [ɘ].[23] | ||||
| Cockney[24] | [ʊʔk] | Sometimes fronted to [ʊ̈].[24] | |||
| Conservative New Zealand[25][26] | [hʊʔk] | The height varies from near-close to close-mid. The innovative General New Zealand variant is fronted and unrounded to [ɪ̈ ~ ɘ].[26][27] See New Zealand English phonology | |||
| Conservative Received Pronunciation[28] | Often lowered and advanced to [ɵ], or unrounded to [ɘ]. See English phonology | ||||
| Multicultural London[29] | May be front [ʏ] instead.[29] | ||||
| Norfolk[30] | |||||
| Some Estuary speakers[31] | Often advanced to [ʊ̈ ~ ʏ], or advanced and lowered to [ɵ ~ ʏ̞].[31] | ||||
| General American[4] | [hʊ̞k] | Close-mid.[4][5][32] | |||
| Geordie[5] | |||||
| Southern Michigan[32] | |||||
| Northern England | cut | [kʊt] | 'cut' | Phonetic realization of /ʌ/ in dialects without the foot-strut split.[33] | |
| Local Dublin[34] | |||||
| Australian[35][36] | thought | [θo̝ːt] | 'thought' | Fully back.[35][36][37] In New Zealand English, the height varies from near-close [o̝ː] (a typical value in General NZE) to mid [o̞ː] (a typical value in Maori English).[25][37][38] It corresponds to [ɔː] in other dialects. See Australian English phonology and New Zealand English phonology | |
| General New Zealand[39] | |||||
| Scottish[9][10] | go | [ɡo̝ː] | 'go' | Fully back.[9][10] Corresponds to [oʊ] in other dialects. | |
| French | Quebec[40] | foule | [fʊl] | 'crowd' | Allophone of /u/ in closed syllables.[40] See Quebec French phonology |
| German | Standard[41][42] | Stunde | ⓘ | 'hour' | The quality has been variously described as near-close back [ʊ̠][41] and close-mid near-back [ʊ̞].[43] For some speakers, it may be as high as [u].[44] See Standard German phonology |
| Hindustani[45] | Hindi | गुलाब/gulaab | [gʊˈläːb] | 'rose' | See Hindustani phonology |
| Urdu | گلاب/gulaab | ||||
| Hungarian[46] | ujj | [ʊjː] | 'finger' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩. See Hungarian phonology | |
| Irish | Munster[47] | dubh | [d̪ˠʊvˠ] | 'black' | Allophone of /ʊ/ between broad consonants.[47] See Irish phonology |
| Italian | Central-Southern accents[48] | ombra | [ˈo̝mbrä] | 'shade' | Fully back; local realization of /o/.[48] See Italian phonology |
| Kurdish[49][50] | Kurmanji (Northern) | gul | [gʊl] | 'flower' | See Kurdish phonology |
| Sorani (Central) | گوڵ/gul | ||||
| Palewani (Southern) | |||||
| Latin | Classical | puella | [pʊɛlla] | 'girl' | |
| Limburgish | Some dialects[6][51] | póp | [pʊ̞p] | 'doll' | Close-mid in the Maastrichtian dialect.[6] The example word is from that dialect. |
| Luxembourgish[8] | Sprooch | [ʃpʀo̝ːχ] | 'language' | Fully back.[8] Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨oː⟩. See Luxembourgish phonology | |
| Malay | mampus | [mam.pʊs] | 'die' | Allophone of /u/ in closed-final syllables. May be [o] or [o̞] depending on the speaker. See Malay phonology | |
| Pashayi | Lower Darai Nur dialect[52] | صُر/sar | [sʊ̞r] | 'sun' | Close-mid.[52] |
| Portuguese | Brazilian[53] | pulo | [ˈpulʊ] | 'leap' | Reduction and neutralization of unstressed /u, o, ɔ/; can be voiceless. See Portuguese phonology |
| Russian[54] | сухой (suchoj/suhoj) | ⓘ | 'dry' | Unstressed allophone of /u/.[54] See Russian phonology | |
| Saterland Frisian[55] | Roop | [ʀo̝ːp] | 'rope' | Phonetic realization of /oː/ and /ʊ/. Near-close back [o̝ː] in the former case, close-mid near-back [ʊ̞] in the latter. Phonetically, the latter is nearly identical to /ɔː/ ([o̟ː]).[55] | |
| Scots | Glenoe dialect[56] | go | [ɡo̝ː] | 'go' | Fully back.[56] |
| Rathlin dialect[56] | |||||
| Sinhalese[57] | හුඟක්/huňgak | [ɦʊ̜ŋɡak] | 'much' | Only weakly rounded;[58] typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩. | |
| Slovak[59][60] | ruka | [ˈru̞kä] | 'arm' | Typically fully back.[59] See Slovak phonology | |
| Sotho[61] | potso | [pʼʊ̠t͡sʼɔ] | 'query' | Fully back; contrasts close, near-close and close-mid back rounded vowels.[61] See Sotho phonology | |
| Spanish | Eastern Andalusian[62] | tus | [t̪ʊ̠ː] | 'your' (pl.) | Fully back. Corresponds to [u] in other dialects, but in these dialects they are distinct. See Spanish phonology |
| Murcian[62] | |||||
| Turkish[63] | buzlu | [buz̪ˈl̠ʊ] | 'icy' | Allophone of /u/ described variously as "word-final"[63] and "occurring in final open syllable of a phrase".[64] See Turkish phonology | |
| Ukrainian[65] | Мусій | [mʊˈsij] | 'Musiy' (name) | See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Welsh | gẃraidd | [ɡʊ.raið] | 'manly' | See Welsh phonology | |
| Yoruba[66] | lati sun | [lati sũ̟] | 'to sleep' | Near-back or back; typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ũ⟩. It is nasalized, and may be close [ũ̟ ~ ũ] instead.[66] | |
Near-close back compressed vowel
| Near-close back compressed vowel | |
|---|---|
| ʊ͍ | |
| ɯ̽ᵝ |
Some languages, such as Norwegian, are found with a near-close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial.
There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ̽͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ̽] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯ̽ᵝ⟩ ([ɯ̽] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨ʊ͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, though technically 'spread' means unrounded.
Only the Shanghainese dialect is known to contrast this with the more typical protruded (endolabial) near-close back vowel, although the height of both of these vowels varies from close to close-mid.[16]
The fully back variant of the near-close compressed vowel can be transcribed ⟨ɯ̞͡β̞⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ᵝ⟩ or ⟨u͍˕⟩.
Features
- Its vowel height is near-close, also known as near-high, which means the tongue is not quite so constricted as a close vowel (high vowel).
- Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed. The prototypical [ʊ] has a weak rounding (though it is protruded, rather than compressed), more like [ɔ] than the neighboring cardinal vowels.
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese | Shanghainese[16] | 都 | [tɯ̽ᵝ¹] | 'capital' | The height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back protruded vowel.[16] |
| Norwegian[67][68] | ond | [ɯ̞ᵝnː] | 'evil' | Backness varies among dialects; it is a back vowel [ɯ̞ᵝ] in Urban East Norwegian, whereas in Stavangersk it is near-back [ɯ̽ᵝ].[67] The UEN vowel has also been described as close back [ɯᵝ].[69] See Norwegian phonology | |
| Swedish | Central Standard[70][71] | ort | ⓘ | 'locality' | The quality has been variously described as near-close near-back [ɯ̽ᵝ],[70] near-close back [ɯ̞ᵝ][71] and close back [ɯᵝ].[72] See Swedish phonology |
Notes
- While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
- International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 169.
- International Phonetic Association (1999), pp. 13, 170, 180.
- Wells (1982), p. 486.
- Watt & Allen (2003), p. 268.
- Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 158–159.
- Khan (2010), p. 222.
- Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
- Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
- Lindsey (2012b).
- Lass (1987), p. 119.
- Mahanta (2012), p. 220.
- Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 293–294.
- Watkins (2001), p. 293.
- Lee & Zee (2003), p. 111.
- Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329.
- Basbøll (2005), p. 58.
- Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 134, 200–201.
- van Oostendorp (2013), section 29.
- Wells (1982), pp. 421–422.
- Connolly (1990), p. 125.
- Tench (1990), p. 135.
- Collins & Mees (1990), pp. 92–93.
- Mott (2011), p. 75.
- Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
- Hay, Maclagan & Gordon (2008), p. 24.
- Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98, 100–101.
- Lindsey (2012a).
- Cruttenden (2014), p. 91.
- Lodge (2009), p. 168.
- Altendorf & Watt (2004), p. 188.
- Hillenbrand (2003), p. 122.
- Wells (1982), pp. 132, 196–199, 351–353.
- "Glossary". Retrieved 2021-04-23.
- Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
- Cox & Fletcher (2017), p. 65.
- Hay, Maclagan & Gordon (2008), p. 21.
- Warren & Bauer (2004), p. 617.
- Hay, Maclagan & Gordon (2008), pp. 21–22.
- Walker (1984), pp. 51–60.
- Kohler (1999), p. 87.
- Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), pp. 34, 64.
- Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
- Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
- Ohala (1999), p. 102.
- Szende (1994), p. 92.
- Ó Sé (2000), p. ?.
- Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 137.
- Thackston (2006a), p. 1.
- Khan & Lescot (1970), pp. 8–16.
- Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 110.
- Lamuwal & Baker (2013), p. 245.
- Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
- Jones & Ward (1969), p. 69.
- Peters (2017), p. ?.
- Gregg (1953).
- Perera & Jones (1919), pp. 5, 10.
- Perera & Jones (1919), p. 10.
- Pavlík (2004), pp. 93, 95.
- Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 375.
- Doke & Mofokeng (1974), p. ?.
- Zamora Vicente (1967), p. ?.
- Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 10.
- Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 155.
- Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
- Bamgboṣe (1966), p. 166.
- Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 18.
- While Vanvik (1979) does not describe the exact type of rounding of this vowel, some other sources (e.g. Haugen (1974:40) and Kristoffersen (2000:16)) state explicitly that it is compressed.
- Kvifte & Gude-Husken (2005), p. 2.
- Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9.
- Engstrand (1999), p. 140.
- Dahlstedt (1967), p. 16.
References
- Altendorf, Ulrike; Watt, Dominik (2004), "The dialects in the South of England: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 181–196, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
- Bamgboṣe, Ayọ (1966), A Grammar of Yoruba, [West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
- Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 0-203-97876-5
- Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
- Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005), "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 131–151, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002148
- Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990), "The Phonetics of Cardiff English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 87–103, ISBN 1-85359-032-0
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004103406
- Connolly, John H. (1990), "Port Talbot English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, ISBN 1-85359-032-0
- Cox, Felicity; Fletcher, Janet (2017) [First published 2012], Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-316-63926-9
- Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 341–350, doi:10.1017/S0025100307003192
- Cruttenden, Alan (2014), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092
- Dahlstedt, Karl-Hampus (1967), Svårigheter i svenskans uttal, Modersmålslärarnas förening
- Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
- Doke, Clement Martyn; Mofokeng, S. Machabe (1974), Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar (3rd ed.), Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, ISBN 0-582-61700-6
- Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
- Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
- Gregg, Robert J. (1953). Smyth, Anne; Montgomery, Michael; Robinson, Philip (eds.). Phonology of an East Antrim Dialect. The Academic Study of Ulster Scots (Thesis).
- Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943
- Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2): 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
- Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000162
- Haugen, Einar (1974) [1965], Norwegian-English Dictionary, The University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 0-299-03874-2
- Hay, Jennifer; Maclagan, Margaret; Gordon, Elizabeth (2008), New Zealand English, Dialects of English, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-2529-1
- Heijmans, Linda; Gussenhoven, Carlos (1998), "The Dutch dialect of Weert" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1–2): 107–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006307, S2CID 145635698
- Hillenbrand, James M. (2003), "American English: Southern Michigan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 121–126, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001221
- International Phonetic Association (1999), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969), The Phonetics of Russian, Cambridge University Press
- Khan, Sameer ud Dowla (2010), "Bengali (Bangladeshi Standard)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (2): 221–225, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000071
- Khan, Celadet Bedir; Lescot, Roger (1970), Grammaire Kurde (Dialecte kurmandji) (PDF), Paris: La librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien Maisonneuve, retrieved 28 October 2017
- Kohler, Klaus J. (1999), "German", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–89, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
- Kvifte, Bjørn; Gude-Husken, Verena (2005) [First published 1997], Praktische Grammatik der norwegischen Sprache (3rd ed.), Gottfried Egert Verlag, ISBN 3-926972-54-8
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996), The Sounds of the World's Languages, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-19815-4
- Lamuwal, Abd-El-Malek; Baker, Adam (2013), "Southeastern Pashayi", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (2): 243–246, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000133
- Lass, Roger (1987), "Intradiphthongal Dependencies", in Anderson, John; Durand, Jacques (eds.), Explorations in Dependency Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, pp. 109–131, ISBN 9067652970
- Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208
- Lindsey, Geoff (2012a). "The British English vowel system". English Speech Services.
- Lindsey, Geoff (2012b). "Morgen – a suitable case for treatment". English Speech Services.
- Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2
- Mahanta, Shakuntala (2012), "Assamese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 217–224, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000096
- Mott, Brian (2011), "Traditional Cockney and Popular London Speech" (PDF), Dialectologia, 9: 69–94, ISSN 2013-2247
- Ó Sé, Diarmuid (2000), Gaeilge Chorca Dhuibhne (in Irish), Dublin: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann, ISBN 0-946452-97-0
- Ohala, Manjari (1999), "Hindi", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–103, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
- Pavlík, Radoslav (2004), "Slovenské hlásky a medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" (PDF), Jazykovedný časopis, 55: 87–109
- Peters, Jörg (2017), "Saterland Frisian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 49 (2): 223–230, doi:10.1017/S0025100317000226, S2CID 232348873
- Perera, H.S.; Jones, D. (1919), A colloquial Sinhalese reader in phonetic transcription, Manchester: Longmans, Green & Co
- Popperwell, Ronald G. (2010) [First published 1963], Pronunciation of Norwegian, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-15742-1
- Rosenqvist, Håkan (2007), Uttalsboken: svenskt uttal i praktik och teori, Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, ISBN 978-91-27-40645-2
- Scobbie, James M.; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006), Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an overview, Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers
- Strandskogen, Åse-Berit (1979), Norsk fonetikk for utlendinger, Oslo: Gyldendal, ISBN 82-05-10107-8
- Szende, Tamás (1994), "Illustrations of the IPA: Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090, S2CID 242632087
- Tench, Paul (1990), "The Pronunciation of English in Abercrave", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 130–141, ISBN 1-85359-032-0
- Thackston, W.M. (2006a), —Sorani Kurdish— A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings (PDF), retrieved 29 October 2017
- van Oostendorp, Mark (2013), Klankencyclopedie van het Nederlands, Neder-L
- Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 82-990584-0-6
- Walker, Douglas (1984), The Pronunciation of Canadian French (PDF), Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, ISBN 0-7766-4500-5
- Warren, Paul; Bauer, Laurie (2004), "Maori English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 614–624, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
- Watkins, Justin W. (2001), "Illustrations of the IPA: Burmese" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 31 (2): 291–295, doi:10.1017/S0025100301002122, S2CID 232344700
- Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 267–271, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001397
- Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-52128540-2, 0-52128541-0
- Zamora Vicente, Alonso (1967), Dialectología española (2nd ed.), Biblioteca Romanica Hispanica, Editorial Gredos, ISBN 9788424911157
- Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25, retrieved 2015-11-20
External links
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.