Pain management during childbirth

Prior to the 20th century, childbirth predominantly happened in the home, without access to any medical interventions for pain management.[3] Childbirth was a leading cause of death for women, and many were fearful of the process, creating a large desire for pain management.[4] But despite the demands of female patients, little relief was offered before the mid-19th century. Chemical anesthesia during labor was first introduced in 1847, receiving support from women and reluctance from physicians.[4] Some doctors and religious authorities argued that pain relief in childbirth went contrary to God's choice to make childbirth painful; however, others specifically disputed this interpretation. Most opposition to anesthesia, though, was framed in terms of concern about its health consequences and physical effects on labour.[5][6]

Anesthesia's use was popularized in 1853 by Queen Victoria's decision to use chloroform for pain relief during the birth of her eighth child.[4][7] The procedure became known to women as "chloroform à la reine" (in the style of the queen).[5]

In the early 20th century, a drug-induced state known as "twilight sleep" was developed by Carl Gauss and Bernhardt Kronig, two doctors in Freiburg, Germany. The procedure, especially when performed by untrained doctors, had a number of risks and side-effects. Its rise and fall coincided with both first-wave feminism and the anti-German sentiment that arose during World War I.

In 1956, Pope Pius XII approved the use of painless childbirth.[7] The 1960s saw the rise of epidural analgesics for pain management.

Preparation for childbirth can affect the amount of pain experienced during childbirth. It is possible to take a childbirth class, consult with those managing the pregnancy, and writing down questions can assist in getting the information that a woman needs to help manage pain. Simple interaction with friends and family can alleviate concerns.[1]

Moche – female figure in birthing position

Many methods help women to relax and make pain more manageable. A review of the effectiveness of non-medical approaches to pain relief found that water immersion, relaxation methods, and acupuncture relieved pain.[8] These and other non-pharmacologic pain management options are further discussed below.

• Breathing and relaxation techniques[1][8]
  • Relaxation methods may be helpful in reducing the risk of assisted vaginal births.[8]
• Warm showers or baths[1]
• Massage[1][2]
  • Many types of massage can be used during various stages of labor.  Literature suggests light touch or stroke massage techniques may aid in the release of oxytocin, which may help stimulate contractions and facilitate cervical dilatation.  Various types of massage may also help soothe and distract from the pain of labor.[9]
• Warm or cold compresses, such as heat on lower back or cold washcloth on forehead[1]
  • Applying warm compresses, especially to the lower back area, while the cervix is dilating may help reduce pain during the first stage of labor and may even help to decrease the length of labor itself, however, the evidence supporting this is limited.[9]
• Changing positions while in labor (stand, crouch, sit, walk, etc.)[1]
• Use of a labor ball[1]
  • Using a labor ball during childbirth first began in the 1980s.  It is best used during the first stage of labor.  Evidence suggests using a birthing ball can facilitate pain relief by supporting the perineum and providing gentle stimulation to the area during cervical dilatation.  It may also aid in fetal descent through various positioning exercises and with gravity.  [10]
• Listening to music[1]
  • Although little evidence supports music as an effective method in decreasing pain, it may provide a distraction or assist in creating a more positive birth experience which may ultimately decrease the chance of negative postpartum outcomes.[9]
• Acupuncture[8]
  • The use of acupuncture may be associated with fewer assisted vaginal births and caesarean sections.[8]
• Continuous supportive care of a loved one, hospital staff member, or doula[1]
  • The presence of a doula or support attendant may decrease the need for pharmacological pain control and increase the likelihood of spontaneous vaginal births as opposed to cesarean section.[11] A positive support person may also assist in creating an environment leading to a more positive birth experience.[12]
• Other methods include hypnosis, biofeedback, sterile water injection, aromatherapy, and TENS, however there are limited studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of in reducing pain during labor and delivery by using these methods.[8]

According to the American Office of Women's Health, laboring in a tub of warm water, also called hydrotherapy, helps women feel physically supported, and keeps them warm and relaxed. It may also be easier for laboring women to move and find comfortable positions in the water.[1]

Water immersion during the first stage of labor may help decrease the need for analgesia and possibly shorten the duration of labor, however, there is limited data to suggest that water immersion during the second and third stages of labor significantly reduce the use of pharmacologic interventions.[13][14]

In waterbirthing, a woman remains in the water for delivery. The American Academy of Pediatrics has expressed concerns about delivering in water because of a lack of studies showing its safety and because of the rare but reported chance of complications.[1]

Physicians, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, nurses and midwives will typically ask the woman in labor if there is a need of pain relief. Many pain relief options work well when given by a trained and experienced clinician. Clinicians also can use different methods for pain relief at different stages of labor. Still, not all options are available at every hospital and birthing center. Depending on the health history of the mother, the presence of allergies or other concerns, some choices will work better than others.[1]

Epidural and spinal blocks

Further information: Epidural administration

Further information: Spinal anaesthesia

An anesthetic medication is injected into the spine.

An epidural is a procedure that involves placing a tube (catheter) into the lower back, into a small space below the spinal cord. Small doses of medicine can be given through the tube as needed throughout labor. With a spinal block, a small dose of medicine is given as a shot into the spinal fluid in the lower back. Spinal blocks usually are given only once during labor. Epidural and spinal blocks allow most women to be awake and alert with very little pain during labor and childbirth. With an epidural, pain relief starts 10 to 20 minutes after the medicine has been given. The degree of numbness felt can be adjusted. With spinal block, good pain relief starts right away, but it only lasts one to two hours.[1]

Although movement is possible, walking may not be if the medication affects motor function. An epidural can lower blood pressure, which can slow the baby's heartbeat. Fluids given through IV are given to lower this risk. Fluids can cause shivering. But women in labor often shiver with or without an epidural. If the covering of the spinal cord is punctured by the catheter, a bad headache may develop. Treatment can help the headache. An epidural can cause a backache that can occur for a few days after labor. An epidural can prolong the first and second stages of labor. If given late in labor or if too much medicine is used, it might be hard to push when the time comes. An epidural increases risk of assisted vaginal delivery.[1]

Perineal pain after childbirth has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant.[19] The pain from injection sites and possible episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered.[20] Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth.[21]

• Epidural
• Lumbar puncture
• Combined spinal and epidural anaesthesia
• Intrathecal administration